人际交往英文论文文献综述

Cultural Stereotype in Intercultural CommunicationAbstract: Cultural stereotypes are inflexible statements about a category of people. It usually oversimplified, overgeneralized and exaggerated. The world we live in is full of different groups, each of which has its own custom and features. Stereotyping is a easier way to generalize culture characters of a certain group. To some extent, it is real and reasonable. There are many reasons why cultural stereotype forms. However, the oversimplified stereotypes have great negative impact on intercultural communication as well. If treated wrongly, they will become obvious barriers to such communication. This essay focuses on not only on the reasons that arising cultural stereotype, but also on how to turn the negative effects into communicating Words: cultural stereotype; intercultural communication; effect; attitude1. IntroductionIntercultural communication is the communication between two distinct cultures. Each culture has its own custom and features, which make it different from others. The word “stereotype” is an industry jargon which originated in the world of printing. A stereotype is an inflexible mold used to print the same image over and over again. However, here in intercultural communication, the word refers to inflexible statements about a category of people. Stereotypical statements, either positive or negative, are applied to all members of a group without regard for individual differences. Through stereotyping, we can “make sense” of the world by categorizing and classifying people and situations we . The conformation and development of cultural How do cultural stereotype form?As the definition suggests, stereotypes do not develop suddenly but are formed over a period of time. They are made up of bits and pieces of information that we store and use to make sense of what goes on around us. They are connected with social custom and rules. As we grow up, we absorb the statements of differences among cultures from our parents, teachers and friends, which become our own stereotypes. The mess medium, such as TV, magazines, newspaper, books and Internet, also plays an important role in spreading and consolidating the stereotype. For example, by reading Travels of Marco Polo, westerners got the idea that China is extremely prosperous that gold can be seen everywhere in 13th century. Once established, stereotypes become relatively How do cultural stereotype develop?The stereotypes are relatively steady, which can be right for a long time. Nevertheless, they can be influenced by some historic events like the change of international political relations. A good example is how we think of Japanese. We Chinese first thought they were wise, diligent and initiative. But after their invasion, the stereotypical impression on this nation turned into totally opposite—aggressive and extremely ethnocentric. The established stereotypes which were true might also change little by little with time goes by. For example, the stereotype that Chinese people tend to refuse praise from other people in order to show their humility was true in past thousands years. However, being influenced by the western culture, the situation has changed a bit now. It is common to see Chinese people say “thank you” when you compliment . The effects of cultural stereotype in intercultural The positive effects of cultural stereotypeIf the stereotypes are in coincidence with the truth, the benefits are apparent. They can be the first step toward learning more about another people or culture. When talking with a person from another culture, we may feel anxious that we have little idea of his likes and dislikes. At this moment, the stereotypes can help us know another individual or group that we are not familiar with easier and faster. As a result, their possible reactions and behaviors can be predicted before we communicate with them. For example, never will we ask the privacy—age, salary or marriages—of a westerner we first meet, because we have stereotyped that they might feel offended by such questions. Thus the possible unpleasantness or even conflict can be avoided. As Thiederman(1991: 16) said, the primary reason that people stereotype in workplace is to relieve anxiety, for it is human nature to feel anxious when situations are ambiguous or behavior is unpredictable. He believes that by stereotyping or by constructing categories which human beings can be placed, this anxiety is relieved, and we regain a sense of control and predictability. What’s more, stereotypes can not only release our anxiety, but also help us reach a successful communication. When negotiating with Germen, never will we play jokes to relieve the atmosphere for it may make them feel we are unserious. With the stereotypes, we can choose the most efficient and effective ways to fulfill our The negative effects of cultural stereotypeHowever, like many things, cultural stereotype has two sides. And to my understanding, the negative effects overweigh the positive ones. Often stereotypes are problematic because they are oversimplified and exaggerated, basing on half-truth or distortions about a group of people. Many people have preconceived ideas and stereotypes about other cultures. Most of these stereotypes are probably erroneous, and built walls between cultures. The common effects are as follows:First, they bring about widely false perception on the people we will communicate with. For instance, in America, the white commonly think all African-Americans are violent. Reports constantly show white people are attacked by them. As a result, the white become so scared that they keep a distance from them. Such kind of stereotype actually prevents communication between these two groups, which adds to the , Stereotypes often lead to self-fulfilling prophecies—people see in foreigners what they expect to see(Xiuzhen Ren, 2006:46), preventing some people of stereotyped groups from succeeding in activities or fields. An example of this would be the prevalent stereotype that women are not good at math and sciences, which in turn may cause women to internalize such beliefs and avoid studying or pursuing math or science related , as an extension of ethnocentrism, stereotypes are one of the obvious barriers to intercultural communication, contributing to racism as well as the confrontation between cultures. Aloud, an American social psychologist claimed that being influenced by parents and environment, children around 5 years old have already learned to distinguish between the white and the black with the negative stereotypes on the black. When reaching 7, most of them show discrimination to Asians and . The correct attitude toward cultural stereotypeTaking all these above into consideration, how can we take advantage of cultural stereotype to the full? In fact, we can never get rid of the negative stereotype for good, because the environment we live in, no matter natural or social, is so complicated that no one can explore all the subtle parts to find the truth. However, it doesn’t mean that we can do nothing about these problems. Ting-Toomey (1999: 163) lists some ways to avoid the negative effects of stereotypes:(1) Being aware that we are stereotyping;(2) Assuming stereotypes are “best first guesses”, not “definite answers”;(3) “Using loose, interpretive categories rather than evaluative categories”;(4) Qualifying our perceptions and interpretations;(5) Being open to new information ready to redefine categories;(6) Getting to know the identities of individuals within the group;(7) Recognizing “meaningful and valid differences” between our group and my opinion, not all the stereotypes must be avoided. We’d better make sure whether the stereotypes we have in our mind are right or wrong. If they are true, make full of them in your communication. If they are wrong, we should have a correct attitude to them in order to eliminate the possible negative effects on intercultural communication. This requires us to improve our psychological bearing capacity and use a tolerant, open and flexible attitude to cope with all the problems when facing the uncertainty during the communication. There are some basic communicating skills-- predicting the differences, sense of humor as well as venturesome spirit--can be used during the process. Meanwhile, we should search more information about other groups or cultures. When describing the cultural differences, we should try our best to avoid evaluating whether they are good or bad according to our personal perception. No culture is superior to others. The key is not getting rid of cultural stereotypes but getting out of them. Being aware of the possible incompleteness and incorrectness of our stereotypes when you are facing people from other cultures, you will surely get more accurate . ConclusionCultural differences, which make the world colorful, need understanding. Finding and explaining the differences is just the beginning, while seeking commons and identities among cultures is the end. Can different cultures communicate with each other efficiently to reach an agreement? Of course, the answer is yes only if we can make full of the positive effects of cultural stereotype and turn the negative ones into benefits. A successful intercultural communicator always has a good knowledge of the basic general features of other cultures. What contributes most is showing empathy when communicating with people from different background, with great tolerance, respect, patience and , Stella. Communicating across Cultures. Guilford Press. , H. C.. Attitude and Attitude Change. New York: John Wailey and Sons. Ren & 2006. A Study of Cultural Stereotypes in Intercultural Communication. Sino-US English Teaching (Serial ), ISSN1539-8072,USA惯等都有很大的差别，许多日常行为在两种语言的交际活动中也存在明显的文化差异。本文旨在通过对比分析汉英文化中褒奖行为的异同点及常见的语用失误，使大家进一步了解语言只有在一定的文化背景下及语境中被正确使用，才能体现出它们的交际价值，这对我们的日常交际、英语教学及语言研究有极大的启示和帮助。[关键词]跨文化交际 汉英文化差异 褒奖语及应答 语用失误一、引言语言是文化的载体，是文化的一个密不可分的组成部分，它既反映文化，也受文化的影响。语言使用除了受到结构规则，即语音、词汇、语法等的制约，还会受到使用规则的制约，这儿的使用规则即指语言所属的社会文化，社会文化决定语言使用是否得体。由于文化的迁移，外语学习者常常会将自己的文化模式套入新的语言文化中，而“文化既有其统一性、延续性和共有性，又有其差异性和变化性。”（胡文仲，1985）褒奖行为这种社会现象存在于每个社会群体，存在于各种不同的语言文化中，不同层面、不同程度地反映着人们的交际活动，它不仅可以缩短交际者之间的距离，而且可以联络感情，巩固和加强交际者之间的团结，起到社会润滑油的作用。美国语言学家Pomerantz指出，褒奖语是一种支撑性行为（supportive action），也是一种评价性行为（assessment action），也就是说，称赞语不仅有称赞的性质，也有评价的性质。下面让我们来探讨一下汉英文化在褒奖这一言语行为上的相似点及文化差异，并对由此产生的语用失误作一分析，这样可以使我们更好地了解在跨汉英文化交际时如何恰如其分地称赞对方并知道怎样对对方的称赞做出正确得体的语言回应，这对我们的日常交际、英语教学及语言研究都有极其重要的作用。二、汉英文化中褒奖行为的相似点1．注重礼貌待人言语交际中所体现的礼貌程度，在一定意义上标志着一个社会的文明程度，反映着一个民族的精神风貌。中国是文明古国，礼仪之邦，在人际交往中，人们极为重视谦虚、恭敬的态度和礼貌的语言。英语文化中也充分体现了对言语行为中礼貌原则的体现。利奇（Leech ，1983）在前人研究的基础上，从语用学和人际交往中修辞的角度，对交际活动中的礼貌原则进行了新的归纳和分类，即由得体准则（tact maxim）、慷慨准则（generosity maxim）、赞誉准则（approbation maxim）、谦虚准则（modesty maxim）、一致准则（agreement maxim）和同情准则（sympathy maxim）等六个准则构成。后来的一些东西方学者相继从不同角度对言语交际中的礼貌现象进行了探讨，使礼貌成为语用学研究的重要课题之一。礼貌原则反映到行为中，在称赞、感谢等表达上，汉语和英语存在着不少相似之处。如，（1） 你做的饭真好吃。（2） Thank you for your . 提倡谦虚态度一般认为谦虚是中国文化所具有的美德，但是，在英语文化中也是一个重要的内容。在汉语的谦虚表达中，对于来自对方的称赞和评价，一般不采用全面赞同的应答，而采取“缩小规模”来表示同意的策略。如，（1） 甲：你刚才唱歌唱得真好听。乙：是吗？不过我觉得我没大放开。（2） A： You have a nice one-room ： Yes. The rent is expensive. It is a burden.说话人通过赞同、认可来称赞对方的行为，听话人通过谦虚、礼貌的态度来应答，从而创造出“和”的气氛，这是汉英语言在会话中的典型表现。褒奖行为带上了社交礼节的特点，在日常生活中维持了人们之间的圆满关系。3．讲究协调和谐很多东方国家包括中国有史以来在社会结构上一直是家族式的，形成一种聚合模式，其特点是从众意识较强，不想突出个人，注重与他人“和为贵”。我们不难发现在学校里，有些说话讲究艺术性的老师批评学生时很讲策略，如你的文章写得很好，要是字再漂亮些就更棒了。老师把批评书法和称赞文章结合起来，减弱了批评的味道，学生容易接受，对维护和谐的师生关系起到了良好作用。中国有以“和”为轴心的文化，中国人常常无意识地、微妙地运用这种“和”文化来相互理解，彼此达到和谐的关系。英语国家大都是异族混居的国家，成为一种离散模式，其特征表现为相互疏远，讲究个体独处。不过，他们的社会也并非没有在“协调”上下功夫。西方语言哲学家及语用学家格赖斯（Grice）在1968年就提出了会话所需要的四个协调原则：（1）说直话，不要说没有十分把握的话；（2）掌握信息数量，不要给予超出所需的信息；（3）说有关内容的话，不要离题；（4）说话要明快、简洁、条理清楚。这四个原则被认为是语言交际的一般会话原则。三、汉英文化中褒奖行为的差异1．褒奖方式的差异一个美国学生和一个中国学生应邀去日本朋友家做客，虽然过后中国学生对美国学生说日本饭菜并不迎合他的口味，但在吃饭及做客后告别时，他却一直不停地在主人面前说饭菜如何地美味可口。美国学生觉得中国学生说了假话，让人听上去很虚伪。他认为如果是自己的话，他会说一些感谢的话，但同时也会率直地指出饭菜不合口味。对此，中国学生的解释是说饭菜可口是感谢的一种表达，并不是虚伪的恭维。英语文化中，人们习惯把对对方的敬佩和感激用不同的言语行为表现出来，假使要称赞他们，也是采用评论性的、限制性的，而且是高姿态的称赞方式；而中国人面对同一对象时，其称赞、感谢的言辞是不带评价的、全面肯定的、低姿态的，往往被西方人看成过分谦虚了，是虚情假意、恭维奉承的表现。2．褒奖范围的差异及不同观念汉英文化中不同的传统和价值观念导致了褒奖范围的差异，在西方的文化背景下，宗教信仰、收入、年龄等都是需要避讳的话题，如我们对此类问题进行称赞会使话题陷入尴尬境地，影响双方的进一步交流。和英语中的褒奖话语相对比，汉语中出现频率较高的褒奖语涉及到对对方性格、内在品德及精神的赞美和钦佩，如常可以听到以下的寒暄语。（1） 你脾气真好，对孩子这么有耐心。（2） 你起得总这么早！（3） 你学习真努力！传统和价值观念的不同还体现在对于同一褒奖点人们的不同观念。一种文化普遍认可或认为是具有价值的行为，在另一种文化中却得不到承认，或加以摈弃；一种文化认为是文明的、适宜的言语，在另一种文化中却被认为是落后的、无礼的行为。让我们对以下几个方面的话题进行探讨，对此会有比较深刻的理解。①体重。这是一个在两种语言中出现频率都很高的话题。过去，中国人见面如果说对方“发福了”“胖了”是一种恭维，但现在人们的生活水平的提高带来了对健康及审美的需求，很多人反倒愿意听别人说自己“瘦了”，可我们仍不能否认，在传统文化的影响下，说对方“发福了”“胖了”仍含有恭维对方生活条件优越的含义，而说对方“瘦了”一般情况下也表达了对其身体状况的关切；在英语文化中却没有这种含义，人们把体重超标看作是不健康的标志，所以说对方胖会被理解成暗指对方体质下降，而说对方“瘦了”毫无疑问是句恭维话，②金钱。对中国人来说，称赞对方的家庭背景、经济状况是一种恭维，在很多情况下这种恭维还会带有羡慕的成分；在英语文化中则不然，人们更看重个人通过努力而得来的财富，这种观念在本杰明·富兰克林（Benjamin Franklin）的著作中得到了体现——“God helps those who help themselves”（自助者天助）。③友谊。汉英两种文化背景下的人都重视友情，但中国人的人际关系取向以情感为中心，认为朋友，特别是好朋友之间应该互相帮助，互讲义气，所以我们常常会听到“真够意思”“够哥们”“够义气”这样的恭维，这在英语文化中是听不到的。以英语文化为背景的人际关系取向以工作、志趣和活动为中心，朋友关系中仍然强调独立、自主和竞争，相互之间没有义务和责任。所以，一个人如果没有给他身处困境中的朋友提供帮助是很正常、无可厚非的。④外貌。中国女性在公开场合或丈夫在场时受到异性对自己外貌的褒奖时，多数人会觉得不好意思，有时甚至会觉得不雅，有失体统；英语中人们对女性外貌、化妆和服装等的称赞是很普遍、很自然的，而且自由度很大，基本上不受年龄、地位、场合和熟识程度的限制。⑤家庭成员。中国人倾向称赞对方的家庭成员，尤其是对方的孩子；英语文化背景下的人们倾向家庭成员之间互相称赞。之所以存在这种差异是因为中国人家庭观念浓厚，认为家庭和个人是一体的，所以家庭成员之间互相称赞有“自我表扬”之嫌，而称赞对方的家人事实上就是在称赞听话者本人；而多数西方人自我观念意识强，这种独立性往往使他们对自己的家庭成员不吝赞美。如，（1） 你女儿长得真漂亮！（2） 这么短时间不见，你儿子长这么高了！（3）（母亲对女儿） You look so lovely in your new dress!（4）（丈夫对妻子）What a nice dinner you gave us!