关于经济类的文章

用均衡原理来描述谷贱伤农现代经济学已经发展到了宏观、中观、微观多个层次，分析方式也已经由最初的定性分析过度到定量分析。初学《宏微观经济学》教程，密密麻麻的数学模型和推导让我这样的初学经济学的非专业人士望而却步。其实经济学来自生活，经济学的原理渗透了日常生活、生产的每个角落，经济学原理能够在生活中广泛地运用。人类的每一种行为都可以用经济学来解释，人们在日常生活中不知不觉地运用着经济学的法则。比如商品的价格问题,就和商品的需求价格弹性、企业生产成本、盈利问题紧密相关。 价格的变动会引起需求量的变动。但是，不同的商品，需求量对价格变动的反应是不同的。有的商品价格变动幅度大，而需求量变动幅度小；有的商品价格变动幅度小，而需求量变动幅度大。而“谷贱伤农是我国流传已久的一种说法，它描述的是这么一种经济现象：在丰收的年份，农民的收入却反而减少了。这种似乎难以理解的现象，可以用弹性原理加以解释。”弹性理论正是要说明价格的变动比率和需求量的变动比率之间的关系。需求价格弹性是指某商品的需求量（对企业来说是销售量）变动率与其价格变动率之比。它反映了商品需求量对其价格变动反应的灵敏程度。需求量变动率与价格变动率的比值就是需求价格弹性的弹性系数。即 需求价格弹性的弹性系数＝需求量变动的比率÷价格变动的比率 即需求价格弹性的计算公式为：Ed=(△Q÷Q)╱(△P÷P) =[（Q2—Q1）╱Q1]÷[（P2—P1）╱P1] 它所表明的是：当价格上升百分之一时，需求量所减少的百分数，或者当价格下降百分之一时，需求量所增加的百分数。当│Ed │＜1时，称需求是缺乏弹性的。此时，需求量变动的幅度小于价格变动的幅度；当│Ed │＞1时，称需求是富有弹性的，此时，需求量变动的幅度大于价格变动的幅度。 某种商品的价格变动时，它的需求弹性的大小与价格变动所引起总收益的变动情况是密切相关的。这是因为总收益等于价格乘销售量，价格的变动引起了需求量的变动，从而就引起了销售量的变动。不同商品的需求弹性是不同的，所以价格变动引起的销售量的变动是不同的，总收益的变动也就不同。 如果某商品的需求是富有弹性的，则当该商品价格下降时，需求量增加的幅度大于价格下降的幅度，从而总收益会增加；当商品价格上升时，需求量减少的幅度大于价格上升的幅度，从而总收益会减少。例如：某种商品的价格每公斤2元，销售量为1000公斤，该种商品需求弹性系数为。如果该商品降价至每公斤元，总收益情况如何变化？ 已知：P1=2 Q1=1000 Ed= P2=，设需求量变动的百分比为X。 则由Ed=[（Q2—Q1）÷Q1]÷[（P2—P1）÷P1] ×÷（—） 得X=，即价格下降后销售量增加25%，所以Q2=1000×（1+）=1250公斤。 总收益情况：TR1=P1×Q1=2×1000=2000元 TR2=P2×Q2=×1250=2250元 TR2—TR1=250元。 所以降价后商品的总收益增加了250元。这就是富有弹性的商品“薄利多销”的原因所在。 如果某商品的需求是缺乏弹性的，则情况相反。如香烟的需求曲线缺乏弹性，因为上了瘾的烟客不会在乎价格的高低，所以价格的高低对香烟需求量的影响较小。再如：中国有句古语叫“谷贱伤农”，意思是丰收了，由于粮价的下跌，农民的收入减少。其原因就在于粮食是生活必需品，需求价格弹性小。也就是说，人们不因为粮食便宜而多吃粮食，由于丰收了而造成粮价下跌，并不会使需求量同比例的增加，从而总收益减少，农民蒙受损失。不仅如此，粮食是生活必需品，需求收入弹性也小，也就是说，人们收入提高了并不因此而增加粮食的消费。在资本主义社会，经济危机时期出现把粮食和农产品毁掉的作法，究其原因也在于粮食这种产品的需求缺乏弹性，降价不会增加需求量的大幅度的增加，只会减少总收益，所以资本家把这些农产品毁掉反而会减少损失。 相信随着学习的深入，将会学习到更多类似这些在我们日常生活中不知不觉应用了的经济学规律，并且我们可以应用这些规律解析其中的深层原因

易纲编写的《货币银行学》黄达的《金融学》胡定康的《货币银行学》戴国强的《货币银行学》米什金的《货币金融学》博迪的《金融学》刘舒年的《国际金融》复旦姜波克的《国际金融学》南开钱荣堃的《国际金融学》上财奚君羊的《国际金融学》《会计基础》人大或者东北财经的《初级会计》，厦大张亦春的那本《金融市场学》米什金有一本《金融市场与机构》兹维博迪和威廉夏普的《投资学》博迪的《投资学精要》斯蒂芬罗斯的《公司理财》理查德布雷利的《公司财务原理》《财务成本管理》曼昆《经济学原理》萨缪尔森《经济学》蒋中一《数理经济学的基本方法》平狄克《微观经济学》范里安《微观经济学：现代观点》多恩布什《宏观经济学》曼昆《宏观经济学》布兰查德《宏观经济学》+克鲁格曼《国际经济学》+米什金《货币金融学》+博迪《金融学》博迪《投资学》罗斯《公司理财》萨克斯《全球视角的宏观经济学》udin的《数学分析原理》ross的《概率论基础教程》高山晟《经济学中的分析方法》David C. Lay《线性代数及其应用》自己选一本

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Macroeconomics is a sub-field of economics that examines the behavior of the economy as a whole, once all of the individual economic decisions of companies and industries have been summed. Economy-wide phenomena considered by macroeconomics include Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and how it is affected by changes in unemployment, national income, rate of growth, and price levels. In contrast, microeconomics is the study of the economic behaviour and decision-making of individual consumers, firms, and industries. Macroeconomics can be used to analyze how to influence government policy goals such as economic growth, price stability, full employment and the attainment of a sustainable balance of payments. Macroeconomics is sometimes used to refer to a general approach to economic reasoning, which includes long term strategies and rational expectations in aggregate behavior. Until the 1930s most economic analysis did not separate out individual economics behavior from aggregate behavior. With the Great Depression of the 1930s, suffered throughout the developed world at the time, and the development of the concept of national income and product statistics, the field of macroeconomics began to expand. Particularly influential were the ideas of John Maynard Keynes, who formulated theories to try to explain the Great Depression. Before that time, comprehensive national accounts, as we know them today, did not exist . One of the challenges of economics has been a struggle to reconcile macroeconomic and microeconomic models. Starting in the 1950s, macroeconomists developed micro-based models of macroeconomic behavior (such as the consumption function). Dutch economist Jan Tinbergen developed the first comprehensive national macroeconomic model, which he first built for the Netherlands and later applied to the United States and the United Kingdom after World War II. The first global macroeconomic model, Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates LINK project, was initiated by Lawrence Klein and was mentioned in his citation for the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 1980. Theorists such as Robert Lucas Jr suggested (in the 1970s) that at least some traditional Keynesian (after British economist John Maynard Keynes) macroeconomic models were questionable as they were not derived from assumptions about individual behavior, although it was not clear whether the failures were in microeconomic assumptions or in macroeconomic models. However, New Keynesian macroeconomics has generally presented microeconomic models to shore up their macroeconomic theorizing, and some Keynesians have contested the idea that microeconomic foundations are essential, if the model is analytically useful. An analogy might be that the fact that quantum phisics is not fully consistent with relativity theory doesn´t mean that realtivity is false. Many important microeconomic assumptions have never been proved, and some have proved wrong. The various schools of thought are not always in direct competition with one another - even though they sometimes reach differing conclusions. Macroeconomics is an ever evolving area of research. The goal of economic research is not to be "right," but rather to be accurate. It is likely that none of the current schools of economic thought perfectly capture the workings of the economy. They do, however, each contribute a small piece of the overall puzzle. As one learns more about each school of thought, it is possible to combine aspects of each in order to reach an informed synthesis. The traditional distinction is between two different approaches to economics: Keynesian economics, focusing on demand; and supply-side (or neo-classical) economics, focusing on supply. Neither view is typically endorsed to the complete exclusion of the other, but most schools do tend clearly to emphasize one or the other as a theoretical foundation. • Keynesian economics focuses on aggregate demand to explain levels of unemployment and the business cycle. That is, business cycle fluctuations should be reduced through fiscal policy (the government spends more or less depending on the situation) and monetary policy. Early Keynesian macroeconomics was "activist," calling for regular use of policy to stabilize the capitalist economy, while some Keynesians called for the use of incomes policies. • Supply-side economics delineates quite clearly the roles of monetary policy and fiscal policy. The focus for monetary policy should be purely on the price of money as determined by the supply of money and the demand for money. It advocates a monetary policy that directly targets the value of money and does not target interest rates at all. Typically the value of money is measured by reference to gold or some other reference. The focus of fiscal policy is to raise revenue for worthy government investments with a clear recognition of the impact that taxation has on domestic trade. It places heavy emphasis on Say's law, which states that recessions do not occur because of failure in demand or lack of money. • Monetarism, led by Milton Friedman, which holds that inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon. It rejects fiscal policy because it leads to "crowding out" of the private sector. Further, it does not wish to combat inflation or deflation by means of active demand management as in Keynesian economics, but by means of monetary policy rules, such as keeping the rate of growth of the money supply constant over time. • New Keynesian economics, which developed partly in response to new classical economics, strives to provide microeconomic foundations to Keynesian economics by showing how imperfect markets can justify demand management. • Austrian economics is a laissez-faire school of macroeconomics. It focuses on the business cycle that arises from government or central-bank interference that leads to deviations from the natural rate of interest. • Post-Keynesian economics represents a dissent from mainstream Keynesian economics, emphasizing the role of uncertainty and the historical process in macroeconomics. • New classical economics. The original theoretical impetus was the charge that Keynesian economics lacks microeconomic foundations -- . its assertions are not founded in basic economic theory. This school emerged during the 1970s. This school asserts that it does not make sense to claim that the economy at any time might be "out-of-equilibrium". Fluctuations in aggregate variables follow from the individuals in the society continuously re-optimizing as new information on the state of the world is revealed. Later yielded an explicit school which argued that macro-economics does not have micro-economic foundations, but is instead the tool of studying economic systems at equilibrium. 宏观经济学是一种分场经济学的行为,研究是在整个经济中,一旦所有的个人的经济决策,为公司和产业被。宏观经济学认为经济现象包括国内生产总值(GDP)以及它是如何变化影响失业的国民收入的)经济成长率、价格水平。相反,微观经济学研究的就是经济行为和决策的个体消费者,公司和行业。宏观经济学可以用来分析如何影响政府的政策的目标,比如经济增长,价格稳定,充分就业和获取可持续国际收支差额。宏观经济学有时用来指一个经济理论的主要途径,包括长期战略的期望和理性综合行为。直到30年代为止,大部分的经济分析没有独立的个人经济综合行为举止。与1930年代的经济大萧条,遭受了在所有发达国家,发展国民收入的概念和产品的统计数据,但是研究领域的宏观经济学开始扩展。具有特殊影响力的想法是,约翰•梅纳德凯恩斯理论,努力向他们解释制定了经济大萧条。在那时候,综合国民经济核算,如同我们知道他们今天,是不存在的。经济学的一个挑战是一场斗争调和宏观经济政策和微观经济政策,模型。开始于20世纪50年代,macroeconomists发达micro-based模型的宏观经济行为(如消费函数)。1月Tinbergen荷兰经济学家第一个全面发展国家宏观经济模型,该模型他第一次建成为荷兰和后应用于美国和英国二战之后。第一个全球宏观经济模型,沃顿计量预测伙伴联系工程项目,发生在劳伦斯发起克莱恩和被提及他的嘉奖经济学诺贝尔经济学奖1980年。理论家如罗伯特·卢卡斯认为(是在上世纪70年代),认为至少有一些传统的凯恩斯(英国经济学家约翰梅纳德凯恩斯)宏观经济模型都是可疑的,因为他们不是来源于假设的个人行为,虽然现在还不清楚这些失败在微观经济的假定,或是对宏观经济模型。然而,最新凯恩斯主义的宏观微观模型提出了大致以支持他们的宏观经济理论有争议,一些凯恩斯主义者的想法,微观经济基础是必要的,如果模型是分析有用的。打个比方可能是,这样的事实,即量子phisics并不完全符合相对论´,并不代表没有realtivity是假的。许多重要的微观经济假设从来没有被证明,而有些人的证明是错误的。各种各样的思想学派并不总是在彼此的直接竞争,尽管他们有时会达到不同的结论。宏观经济学是一种前所未有的领域的研究。研究经济学的目标不是"正确",而是是精确的。很有可能是学校目前尚无一个经济思想完全捕捉运作方式的经济。不过,他们的贡献每一小块整体难题。当你学会更多关于每个思想学派,它能把方面的每一个为了达到一个通知的合成。传统的区别是留给经济学两种不同的方法,重点凯恩斯经济学和供方需求;(或古典)经济学、关注供应。也都是典型的观点完全排除其他,但大多数学校都往往清晰地强调一个或另一个是的理论基础。•凯恩斯经济学交融在总需求,以解释失业率和商业周期。商业周期波动,应减少通过财政政策(政府花费或多或少根据实际情况)和货币政策。早期凯恩斯主义的宏观经济学是“活动家,定期使用《召唤的政策稳定资本主义经济,虽然有些凯恩斯主义要求使用收入政策。•供给的经济学的作用很明显地在当前货币政策与财政政策。关注于货币政策应该是完全对价格的钱所确定的货币供应的需求的特点,为了金钱。它提倡货币政策,直接目标钱的价值,不目标利率。典型的钱的价值在于用参考金或其他参考。财政政策的重点是提高政府农业投资价值的收入为一个明确的认识税收的影响在国内贸易。它设置了过度强调了说的法律,它表明不会发生经济衰退需求下降、因为没有缺钱。•货币主义的带领下,由弗里德曼,认为始终通货膨胀是一种货币现象。财政政策拒绝,因为会导致“挤退”的私人生活。此外,它不希望对抗通货膨胀或通货紧缩采用主动需求管理在凯恩斯经济学,通过货币政策规则,即坚持的增长速度恒定的钱。凯恩斯•新经济发达的部分原因是为了适应新古典经济学、致力于提供凯恩斯现代经济学的微观经济基础显示出了市场的不完善就能名正言顺的需求管理等。•奥地利经济学是个自由放任主义的学校的宏观经济。它侧重于商业周期,而政府或中央银行的干扰导致偏离自然失业率的兴趣。•Post-Keynesian经济学所代表了凯恩斯经济学主流的作用,强调历史过程中不确定性和宏观经济。•新古典经济学。原理论动力的费用是凯恩斯经济学缺乏有效的微观经济基础——亦即其断言不成立于基本经济理论。这所学校出现在20世纪70年代。这所学校断言它是没有道理的主张经济会随时out-of-equilibrium”。波动的总变量遵从的在这个社会的个人不断re-optimizing新信息的状态的世界就会显现出来。后来取得了一个显式学校一样,认为宏观经济学没有微观经济基础,反而学习经济系统的工具在平衡。