西方及经济学研究问题论文

Summarize the key message of an article called” Land of the Rising Price”:A burst of inflation has happened in Japan in 2008, which makes the price rise. A broker named Christopher Wood points out that it is definitely positive. But others don’t agree with the viewpoint. John Richards, who works in the Royal Bank of Scotland in Tokyo, claims that the recovery in Japan has depended on exports too much. However, the demand from Asia, America and Europe has slowed this year. The rising price causes to reduce companies’ profit margins, while customers’ purchasing power also decreases. Richard Jerram, who works in Macquarie Capital Securities in Tokyo, suggests that when the value of savings is changed by inflation, households are possible to transfer savings into other assets in order to get higher returns. But Mr. Wood argues that the bad inflation, which makes the various costs increase, is another type of gaiatsu. That will cause rapid and deep change in Japan according to the history. He strongly believes that the rapid and deep change will happen recently. However, that will not happen. One of important reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by the central bank as quickly as the bank would like. Another reason is that if money remains cheap, corporate reform is impossible to take place. So the inflation is not good news for cause deflation in Japan:Deflation is a process of falling price, which is the opposite of inflation. Price levels are highly connected with the relationship between the supply and the demand. To understand and express the definition of deflation simply, there is assumption that we are on an isolated island and there are 10 same goods and ten $ bills that are able to buy them with. If everyone wants to get one of them, it is obvious that each good costs $. However, if some people don’t want to get it, the price in each good will decrease because sellers want to sell all of goods. So they have to decrease the price in order to encourage people who don’t want to buy any more buy the goods. This is one of types of deflation, which is caused by decreasing the demand of goods. (, ND)To express the theory more clearly, let’s see a diagram below. In this diagram, the horizon axis y represents total product (national income), while the straight axis represents price level. AD represents aggregate demand curve, while AS represents aggregate supply curve. When the aggregate demand curve drops from AD to AD’, the total product, which depends on the point of intersection between AD curve and AS curve, don’t increase, is still y’. But the price level decreases from P to P’. So this is deflation caused by decreasing the demand of in the isolated island, if the quantity of money drops to $, while the number of goods is 10, the price in each good will decreases to $. This is another type of deflation, which is caused by reducing the supply of money. By the way, the supply of money can also be dropped if someone holds half of money on the island and refuses to spend it on anything. (, ND)According to the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, it is clear that the consumer price fluctuated at very low level during the last ten years. That means the purchasing power is low, which is a sign of deflation. The situation in the last ten years is caused by decreasing the demand of goods or decreasing the supply of deflation good for an economy?In fact, whether deflation is good or not depends on the cause of the deflation. If deflation is caused by increasing the goods supply, it will be good. For example, in the late 19th century, with the industrial revolution happening, the productivity of goods was increasing. So the supply of goods obviously went up. Therefore, the price level dropped. Decreasing the goods demand or increasing the goods supply has the same result. If, however, deflation is caused by reducing money supply, it will be bad. The economy contracted because of lack of liquidity. People may lose their jobs. Thus, banks don’t loan money because people have no ability to pay off it. Therefore, money supply will fall again, while more people may lose their jobs. (, ND)BOJ’s monetary policyMonetary policy is generally classified as an expansionary policy and a contractionary policy. A policy is referred to as contractionary if it decreases the supply of money or increases the interest rate. An expansionary policy raises the supply of money, or drops the interest from the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, the gross interest income dropped quickly from 1994 to 2006. In other words, the interest rate in the 12 years decreased sharply. That means BOJ’s monetary policy was an expansionary policy. Therefore, the supply of money could be increased using this policy. That would activate the aggregate demand. (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2008)Though the policy was on the correct track, I don’t think BOJ was successful in solving the deflation problem. One of important reason is that the time of reducing interest rate was more than 10 years, which was too long. That means BOJ did not find a suitable interest rate during the 12 years. Another important reason is that when a burst of inflation has happened in 2008, the aggregate demand is not activated fully. The inflation relies on Japan imports mostly, rather than increasing domestic demand. So the purpose of the policy has not achieved completely. The third reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by BOJ as quickly as BOJ would like. Bad overseas and domestic economic situation prevent from increasing the interest rate. So generally, BOJ was not successful in solving the rate, exports and exchange rateThe interest rate has very strong effect on the exchange rate. As we all know, the interest rate level depends on the relationship between the demand and the supply in foreign exchange market. Foreign exchange is one type of financial assets. An investor chooses and holds it because it brings capital returns. Actually, the return of currency in each country is measured by the interest rate in each country’s financial market. If the interest rate of currency in one country rises, the return will also rise, attracting investors to buy the currency. If the interest rate drops, the return will decrease. Therefore, the attraction of the currency is low. BOJ has kept the interest rate low, which is the lowest of any G8 economy. That means the interest rate of Japanese Yen is lower than many other countries, which leads to increasing capital outflows, reducing capital inflows. Thus, investors who hold Japanese Yen will sell the currency, which will make the exchange rate exchange rate of Japanese Yen always leads to rising Japanese exports and reducing the imports. First, with the depreciation of Japanese Yen, price of domestic goods is lower than price of foreign goods. So the demand of domestic goods will increase, while the demand of foreign goods will decrease. It is good for Japanese exports and international reserve. Second, with the increase of the demand of domestic goods, the price level will go up, while the employment will rise, increasing the national income. The behavior of companies and consumersIn deflation period, the price in the market is falling. As a result, the company profits are reducing. So a company is trying its best to make the cost of production lower in order to remain competitive. One way to achieve the aim is to reduce the nominal wage. Therefore, people spend less money in purchasing so that they will show the sign of belt-tightening. Actually, the deflation lasted for more than 10 years. So when the inflation is happening, the price level is increased. Therefore, companies expected that the increased price level might solve the problem caused by deflation. So they have struggled to pay more wages and hire more workers so that the cost is increasing. But unfortunately, rising price level don’t solve the problem. Therefore, company profits are decreasing because the cost is increasing in the inflation period. In fact, in the short run, even though inflation is happening, people are not responding to that because they don’t know the price in future will be higher than current price, at least in the short run.

分析政治经济学与西方经济学的比较及结合研究论文

从小学、初中、高中到大学乃至工作，大家都写过论文吧，论文写作的过程是人们获得直接经验的过程。相信许多人会觉得论文很难写吧，下面是我整理的分析政治经济学与西方经济学的比较及结合研究论文，仅供参考，希望能够帮助到大家。

摘要： 政治经济学与西方经济学属于经济学的两大分支，虽然它们有着本质不同之处，但是也有着统一的一面。从使用价值论与效用价值论、成本问题、定价与利润问题、垄断问题四个方面入手，分析政治经济学与西方经济学的对立与统一，从而寻找二者结合的可行性，为解决经济问题提供更广泛的思路。

关键词 ：政治经济学；西方经济学；比较；

继古典政治经济学之后，现代经济学逐渐分支成两大体系：马克思主义政治经济学和西方经济学。西方经济学根据其研究角度又分为微观经济学和宏观经济学。政治经济学以社会生产关系为研究对象，揭示经济运行规律，以劳动二重性为核心。而西方经济学以人和社会的选择方式作为研究对象，宏观经济学以国民收入决定理论为核心，微观经济学以均衡价格论为核心。本文通过比较政治经济学和西方经济学两种不同经济研究思想的异同，为二者结合提供必要性支持。

1、使用价值论与效用价值论比较

马克思主义政治经济学提倡使用价值论，西方经济学主张效用价值论。马克思主义政治经济学提出商品是价值与使用价值的统一。使用价值是指物的有用性。根据劳动价值论中的劳动二重性，抽象劳动形成了商品价值，而具体劳动创造了商品的使用价值。使用价值决定了商品属性，具有明显的客观性。因此，商品是以其使用价值来满足人民需要的。而在效用价值论中，商品的效用是指商品满足人欲望的能力，衡量方是个人主观感受，而非客观劳动，所以具有明显的主观性。

虽然二者有不同之处，但二者仍具有统一性。使用价值和效用是一个事物两个方面，它们都具备有用性的特征。不同的定义视角下，使用价值以物的有用性为特征，而效用价值论中商品之所以可以满足人们需要，正是由商品的本身有用性，即使用价值。由于效用具有有用性、稀缺性两大特征，而使用价值是指有用性，所以不能将二者简单等同，但是二者的同一性的确存在。因此，使用价值论与效用价值论的统一，为政治经济学和西方经济学结合奠定基础。

2、成本问题比较

人们要进行生产经营活动或达到一定的目的，就必须耗费一定的资源，其所费资源的货币表现及其对象化称之为成本。马克思主义政治经济学中，针对成本提出生产资本概念，生产资本的价格表达是成本价格，用K表示，而K又等于c+v.其中c是指固定资本，v是指流动资本。固定资本是指投入到厂房、机器、设备等劳动资料上的那一部分成本，在一次生产过程中价值逐步转移一定比例。在多次生产过程中，价值才能转移完毕。流动资本是指在生产成本中，全部一次投入生产过程，并在一次生产过程中价值全部转移的那部分资本，具体来说，是指投入到原料、燃料、辅料的那一部分资本。西方经济学中，将成本分为不变成本（固定成本）和可变成本。固定成本是当产出为零，必须支付的开支总额，且固定成本不受任何产出量的影响；而可变成本是指随着产出变化而变化的开支，指原料、燃料、工资以及非固定的所有成本。

通过分析，可以看到，虽然定义存在差异，但是固定资本与不变成本、流动资本与可变成本有着高度相似性。投入到原料、燃料、辅料等那一部分，在马克思主义政治经济学中属于可变资本范畴，而在西方经济学中成为可变成本范畴。而投入到厂房、机器等那一部分，在马克思主义政治经济学中属于不变资本范畴，而在西方经济学中成为不变成本（固定成本）范畴。

3、定价与利润问题比较

针对价格问题，马克思主义政治经济学认为价值决定价格。劳动二重性认为，劳动分为具体劳动与抽象劳动。无差别、同质化的抽象劳动量决定商品的价值，而商品价值又决定了商品价格。但是，在西方经济学中，在市场其他因素不变时，商品的均衡价格P0是供给曲线和需求曲线的交点，即供给和需求决定了商品价格。

虽然二者对于价格的决定因素不同，但是通过价值定律，可以看到二者融合性。政治经济学中的价值定律认为商品的`价值量由社会必要劳动时间决定，商品之间进行等价交换。而它的表现形式是市场受供求关系影响，价格以价值为中心上下波动。因此，虽然二者认为价格决定因素不同，但是价格确定是无法离开价值和供求任何一方的。

利润取得二者仍是对立统一。政治经济学中，必要劳动时间生产价值完成后，继续劳动则创造剩余劳动价值，从而得到价值增值部分，即利润。而西方经济学中，利润等于价格减去成本。二者含义看似不同，实则本质相同。因为此时，必要劳动时间所耗费资本即为不变资本与可变资本之和，其恰好为成本价格（成本），所以政治经济学中的利润也可表达为价格减去成本。

4、垄断问题比较

在市场中，人们常常提到垄断。究其成因，马克思政治经济学认为，科技水平进步导致生产日益集中，生产集中到适当阶段就形成垄断。而西方经济学中。垄断成因则是由自然垄断、资源垄断、行政性垄断等因素形成的。然而虽然成因不同，二者都承认"竞争-垄断"的演变。在自由竞争中各行业逐渐形成垄断，从而获得更高利润。两方经济观点虽然不同，但存在交叉之处，所以我们在考虑分析垄断成因时或许应将二者结合。

在垄断与竞争关系中，二者也有相合之处。马克思认为"垄断是好东西，应为它是经济范畴……竞争是好东西，因为它也是经济范畴……"马克思政治经济学承认垄断与竞争在市场同时存在。垄断与竞争相互影响，相互促进，并呈现对立统一的关系。而在西方经济学中，它也承认垄断与竞争并存的关系。在市场划分中，它将市场分为完全竞争市场、完全垄断市场、垄断竞争市场和寡头垄断市场。通过充分考虑垄断与竞争不同占比的市场类别，凸显垄断与竞争相互融合、相互依存的关系。

5、结论

通过以上使用价值论与效用价值论、成本、定价与利润和垄断问题四方面问题分析，虽然政治经济学与西方经济学属于两大分支领域，但是二者很多方面都有一定联系。在有些基本原理上，二者存在对立与统一的关系。所以我们应该科学的看待政治经济学与西方经济学，不应随意舍弃其中一方，或只极端强调另一方。集历代优秀学者智慧形成的两大政治经济学与西方经济学这两大经济体系，我们不可否认它们都或多或少存在不足之处，但我们不可轻易否认任何一方。在二者本质不同基础上，我们应当积极寻找恰当联系点，将二者结合，结合当下经济实际，从而更全面的分析解决问题。

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摘要：就业是民生之本，是人们改善生活条件的基本前提和途径，历来都是各国经济社会发展中的重大问题。中国由于人口基数大，劳动力的无限供给和就业岗位严重不足之间的矛盾是最严峻的问题，解决好劳动就业问题其意义极为重大。不仅涉及到求职者的工作安置和许多家庭的切身利益，还关系到经济发展和社会的稳定和谐。回顾西方经济学主要的就业理论，提出这些理论对我国的启示，再结合我国实际情况加以深化认识和借鉴，进而寻求解决我国就业矛盾的有效途径。关键词：就业理论；就业问题；借鉴一、引言我国经济连续多年高速增长，近几年经济增长率都在10%左右，是世界上经济发展最快的国家之一，但是，经济的高增长没有带来高就业。进一步讲，就业形势的好坏，与国民经济的发展速度有着密切关系。一般而言，一定的经济增长所带来的就业增长也是一定的，然而我国的经济增长对就业增长的贡献却不是很明显。最近十多年来，中国经济高速增长，但就业增长却相对缓慢，中国目前有大量的农村剩余劳动力以及存在大量的大学、大专毕业生面临就业选择，甚至毕业就失业的境况。可以说，中国的就业压力很大，劳动力总量供过于求，局部就业供给不足，结构性矛盾日益突出。因而面对着巨大的就业压力，我们应将视野放宽，在立足国情的基础上，充分借鉴西方经济学中有关就业理论研究的成果，解决就业问题，对于中国来说具有非常重要的现实意义。二、西方就业理论演进剖析就业这一重大的社会经济问题长期以来一直受到西方经济学家的关注，从而形成了各具特色的就业理论。西方经济学家对就业问题的长期研究和探索，形成了适应市场经济需求的多角度、多层次的就业理论。如古典经济学派的就业理论，凯恩斯的充分就业理论，新古典综合学派的就业理论，新凯恩斯主义的工资粘性就业理论等。（一）古典学派的就业理论萨伊定律是古典经济学派就业理论的基石，其基本内涵是供给创造需求。该学派经济学家代表人物有马歇尔、庇古等，他们从完全竞争的市场结构出发，认为市场上产品价格和货币工资可以根据市场供求状况自发调整。劳动供给和劳动需求相互作用决定实际工资和就业水平，供求平衡时的就业量就是充分就业水平。进而认为，只要不存在工资刚性，工资率可以自由伸缩，市场机制能自由的发挥调节作用，可使一切可供使用的劳动力资源都被用于生产，劳动力市场总能达到就业均衡，长期持续的非自然失业不可能存在，存在的只是自愿失业和短期性摩擦性失业。他们认为，解决失业问题的办法是消除货币工资的刚性，使货币工资能够随市场的需求而发生相应的变化。古典学派将自由竞争作为前提条件，主张市场调节平衡就业，否定了失业问题的普遍性。但换个角度理解失业的产生仍然是有可能的，失业问题正是竞争不充分所导致的结果，要解决失业问题首先就应该解决劳动力市场竞争的不充分问题。（二）凯恩斯的就业理论凯恩斯就业理论是以有效需求原则为核心，认为就业量取决于有效需求。失业之所以持续不断，是由于资本主义社会一般情况均存在“有效需求不足”。即总供给价格和总需求价格达到均衡时的总需求不足，由此造成较多的社会失业，即不充分就业。凯恩斯主义的促进就业理论实际上主张降低工资，即在不降低名义工资的情况下，降低实际工资。但前提是扩大总需求，因为总需求的扩大，必然会导致通货膨胀，工人名义工资不变，但实际工资相对减少。为实现充分就业，凯恩斯认为，必须摒弃自由放任的经济政策，依靠国家干预，提出需求管理政策，从而达到促进生产，增加就业的目的。（三）新古典综合学派的就业理论20世纪60年代末，各主要资本主义国家的经济相继陷入“滞胀”的困境，凯恩斯理论失灵了。因而以托宾、杜生贝等为代表的新古典综合学派经济学家提出“结构性失业问题”，力图用市场结构的变化来解释失业和通货膨胀并发症，认为是微观市场的不完全性和结构变化引起滞胀。得出结构性失业是因经济结构的变化而引起的劳动力供给和需求的结构失调，结构性失业的存在必然引起失业与工作空位并存。由于强大的工会力量使工资易涨不易跌，所以尽管社会上存在着失业，但货币工资却不下降，而只要存在工作空位，货币工资就会迅速上升。于是，失业与工作空位并存就转化为失业与货币工资上涨并存，进而转化为失业与通货膨胀的并发症。该理论主张从就业内容或就业结构角度来解决结构性失业问题，如政府要指导收入政策，即政府要采取措施限制工资和物价的上升，以缓和通胀；注重完善劳动力市场，缓和因劳工市场技术结构变化造成的失业；适当修改完善失业补助金制度，激励失业者就业。