建筑学毕业论文外文翻译

建筑学，艺术修造在哪些人的要求和建筑材料是相关的以便装备实用用途以及一种审美解答，因而不同与工程学建筑的纯净的公共事业。 作为艺术，建筑学本质上是抽象和非写实的并且介入空间、容量、飞机、大量和空隙关系的操作。 因为大厦在经验连续通常被领会而不是同时，时间也是在建筑学的一个重要因素。 在多数建筑学有整体结构可以被了解的没有有利位置。 使用光和阴影，以及表面装饰，可能很大地提高结构。 对大厦类型的The分析提供洞察入过去文化和时代。 在其中每一句更加巨大的样式谎言一个偶然趋向亦不不是时髦，而且严肃和迫切实验之后的期间将回答具体生活方式的需要指向。 劳方气候、方法，可利用的手段材料和经济全部强加他们的命令。 其中每一更加巨大的样式由在新建工程方法的发现上援助了。 一旦开发，方法生存顽强，让路，只有当社会改变或新的大厦技术减少了它时。 那个调优过程由现代建筑学的历史举例证明，从对结构钢和钢的第一用途在中间第19分开发。 Until第20分。 有在建筑construction—the岗位和楣石的三巨大发展或者横梁式的，系统; 曲拱系统，言词一致的类型，使用硬化入同类的大量的塑料材料或者推力类型，装载被接受并且被抵消在确定点; 并且现代钢骨骼系统。 在第20分。 大厦的新的形式构想了，与使用钢筋混凝土和大地测量学和注重皮肤(轻的材料，加强了)结构的发展。 在国家之下的也See文章，即，美国建筑学; 样式，即，巴洛克式; 期间，即，哥特式建筑和艺术; 各自的建筑师，即， Andrea Palladio; 各自的文体和结构元素，即，网眼图案，取向; 具体大厦键入，即，塔，公寓。 古老世界的Architecture In埃及建筑学，属于将叫建筑学的某些最早期的现存结构(BC架设由埃及人在3000之前)，岗位和楣石系统完全被使用了并且生产了在历史的最早期的石柱状大厦。 W亚洲建筑学从同一个时代的使用了同一个系统; 然而，被成拱形的建筑也被认识并且使用了。 Chaldaeans和亚述人，依赖在黏土作为他们的首要材料，遵守形成坚实壳潮湿的泥砖的被修造的有圆顶屋顶。 实验的After世代与有限的品种大厦的希腊人给了简单的岗位和楣石系统它是获得的最纯净，多数完善的表示(参见帕台农神庙; 建筑学命令)。 罗马式建筑，借用和结合希腊的专栏和亚洲的曲拱，生产了在西部世界中的各种各样巨大的大厦。 他们的混凝土的重大发明在被重建的万神殿(第2分使皇家建造者顺利地利用W亚洲的穹顶建筑和报道浩大的完整的地板面积用伟大的穹顶和圆顶。 .; 看见在万神殿之下)。 样式的The演变在公元 The罗曼和早期的基督徒为顶房顶他们的大教堂大厅宽间距也使用了木捆。 希腊，中国，和日本建筑学没有使用建筑穹顶系统。 然而，在罗马帝国的亚洲分裂，穹顶发展继续了; 拜占庭式的建筑师在第6分试验了新的原则并且开发了穹隅，精采地使用。 为Hagia Sophia教会在君士坦丁堡。 The童年中世纪的罗马式建筑学为强，简单，巨型的在被切开的石头执行的形式和穹顶是著名的。 在伦巴第罗马式(第11分。)穹顶推力的拜占庭式的集中被肋骨设备和码头改进支持他们。 (参见支柱)，这里出现于胚胎的石工的有机支持的和支持的骨骼的想法，成为了中世纪建造者的激发的目标。 在13世纪哥特式建筑它涌现了以被完善的形式，在Amiens和沙特尔大教堂里。 新生建筑学(第15分The诞生。)开始了数百岁月的期间在期间现代世界多个和复杂大厦开始涌现的西部建筑学的在，而同时新和强迫的结构构想没出现。 罗马上古的形式和装饰品再次被复苏了和被定购了入无数的新的首要担当为获得这些作用的一个方便工具组合和结构。 复合体，高度装饰的巴洛克式的样式是首要显示17世纪建筑审美。 英王乔治一世至三世时期样式是在建筑学的著名的18世纪表示之中(参见英王乔治一世至三世时期建筑学)。 第19分的前半。 被放弃了对经典复兴和哥特式复兴。 New世界，新的建筑学 最新第19分的The建筑师。 找到自己在科学、产业和速度被改造的世界。 新的折中主义出现了，例如根据École des花花公子艺术的建筑学，并且什么在英国和美国共同地称维多利亚时代建筑。 而钢、钢筋混凝土和电于在许多新的技术手段之中安排他们的，一个新的社会的需要按了他们。 After更多比一半世纪吸收和实验，现代建筑学，经常叫国际样式，导致大胆和原始的大厦，经常在玻璃覆盖的钢亚结构令人惊讶的品种。 鲍豪斯建筑学派是对现代建筑学的强的影响。 当在建筑学和工程学之间的线成为了engineering—airplane飞机棚阴影、20世纪建筑学经常接近的工程学和现代工作，例如—often瞄准了并且达到了不容置疑的秀丽。 最近，后现代的建筑学(参见后现代主义)，利用并且扩展现代主义技术创新，当经常合并从其他建筑风格或期间时的文体的元素，变成国际运动。 Architecture, the art of building in which human requirements and construction materials are related so as to furnish practical use as well as an aesthetic solution, thus differing from the pure utility of engineering construction. As an art, architecture is essentially abstract and nonrepresentational and involves the manipulation of the relationships of spaces, volumes, planes, masses, and voids. Time is also an important factor in architecture, since a building is usually comprehended in a succession of experiences rather than all at once. In most architecture there is no one vantage point from which the whole structure can be understood. The use of light and shadow, as well as surface decoration, can greatly enhance a structure. The analysis of building types provides an insight into past cultures and eras. Behind each of the greater styles lies not a casual trend nor a vogue, but a period of serious and urgent experimentation directed toward answering the needs of a specific way of life. Climate, methods of labor, available materials, and economy of means all impose their dictates. Each of the greater styles has been aided by the discovery of new construction methods. Once developed, a method survives tenaciously, giving way only when social changes or new building techniques have reduced it. That evolutionary process is exemplified by the history of modern architecture, which developed from the first uses of structural iron and steel in the mid-19th cent. Until the 20th cent. there were three great developments in architectural construction—the post-and-lintel, or trabeated, system; the arch system, either the cohesive type, employing plastic materials hardening into a homogeneous mass, or the thrust type, in which the loads are received and counterbalanced at definite points; and the modern steel-skeleton system. In the 20th cent. new forms of building have been devised, with the use of reinforced concrete and the development of geodesic and stressed-skin (light material, reinforced) structures. See also articles under countries, ., American architecture; styles, ., baroque; periods, ., Gothic architecture and art; individual architects, ., Andrea Palladio; individual stylistic and structural elements, ., tracery, orientation; specific building types, ., pagoda, apartment house. Architecture of the Ancient World In Egyptian architecture, to which belong some of the earliest extant structures to be called architecture (erected by the Egyptians before 3000 .), the post-and-lintel system was employed exclusively and produced the earliest stone columnar buildings in history. The architecture of W Asia from the same era employed the same system; however, arched construction was also known and used. The Chaldaeans and Assyrians, dependent upon clay as their chief material, built vaulted roofs of damp mud bricks that adhered to form a solid shell. After generations of experimentation with buildings of limited variety the Greeks gave to the simple post-and-lintel system the purest, most perfect expression it was to attain (see Parthenon; orders of architecture). Roman architecture, borrowing and combining the columns of Greece and the arches of Asia, produced a wide variety of monumental buildings throughout the Western world. Their momentous invention of concrete enabled the imperial builders to exploit successfully the vault construction of W Asia and to cover vast unbroken floor spaces with great vaults and domes, as in the rebuilt Pantheon (2d cent. .; see under pantheon). The Evolution of Styles in the Christian Era The Romans and the early Christians also used the wooden truss for roofing the wide spans of their basilica halls. Neither Greek, Chinese, nor Japanese architecture used the vault system of construction. However, in the Asian division of the Roman Empire, vault development continued; Byzantine architects experimented with new principles and developed the pendentive, used brilliantly in the 6th cent. for the Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. The Romanesque architecture of the early Middle Ages was notable for strong, simple, massive forms and vaults executed in cut stone. In Lombard Romanesque (11th cent.) the Byzantine concentration of vault thrusts was improved by the device of ribs and of piers to support them. The idea of an organic supporting and buttressing skeleton of masonry (see buttress), here appearing in embryo, became the vitalizing aim of the medieval builders. In 13th-century Gothic architecture it emerged in perfected form, as in the Amiens and Chartres cathedrals. The birth of Renaissance architecture (15th cent.) inaugurated a period of several hundred years in Western architecture during which the multiple and complex buildings of the modern world began to emerge, while at the same time no new and compelling structural conceptions appeared. The forms and ornaments of Roman antiquity were resuscitated again and again and were ordered into numberless new combinations, and structure served chiefly as a convenient tool for attaining these effects. The complex, highly decorated baroque style was the chief manifestation of the 17th-century architectural aesthetic. The Georgian style was among architecture's notable 18th-century expressions (see Georgian architecture). The first half of the 19th cent. was given over to the classic revival and the Gothic revival. New World, New Architectures The architects of the later 19th cent. found themselves in a world being reshaped by science, industry, and speed. A new eclecticism arose, such as the architecture based on the École des Beaux-Arts, and what is commonly called Victorian architecture in Britain and the United States. The needs of a new society pressed them, while steel, reinforced concrete, and electricity were among the many new technical means at their disposal. After more than a half-century of assimilation and experimentation, modern architecture, often called the International style, produced an astonishing variety of daring and original buildings, often steel substructures sheathed in glass. The Bauhaus was a strong influence on modern architecture. As the line between architecture and engineering became a shadow, 20th-century architecture often approached engineering, and modern works of engineering—airplane hangars, for example—often aimed at and achieved an undeniable beauty. More recently, postmodern architecture (see postmodernism), which exploits and expands the technical innovations of modernism while often incorporating stylistic elements from other architectural styles or periods, has become an international movement.