以哩哇啦
Western novels in comparison First, Western novels in the history of the development of Western novels are based on myths and legends of its origin. In ancient times, science developed, out of fear of nature, the working people out of the imagination is the key to many of the world "God", describing the personification of God is a myth; who will describe the deified, that is legend. China opened the world's Pan story, the story of San Juan Five Emperors, the West Greek mythology, Roman mythology, Norse mythology, and so on are all typical works. East and West, the original novel, is closely linked with the history, as historical records complement the event. China Pre-Qin prose in the fable, the Han dynasty in the history books, biographies, the Wei and Jin Zhi, Zhi-person novel; the West of ancient Babylon, "the United States and Ji Jia disabilities epic", in ancient Greece, "Homer's epic," "Aesop's Fables "And so on, fall into this category, fiction, novels such novels have been about the characteristics of fiction, it is still not the literary creation, directly from the private collection record, so this type of fiction plot is relatively simple, writing rough comparison. Ban Gu said, "On the Street Lane words, hearsay are made of" is a novel kind of accurate assessment of the image. China's Tang Dynasty, the novel is only from history and literature become a creativity. Tang Dynasty culture has developed, the author's ideas are more open, the legend came into being at this time, Li Zhaowei "Liu Yi Chuan", Po Chu's "Everlasting Regret," Wolf's "Everlasting Regret Chuan" And so on, are made in accordance with the creation of the legend. For the fictional story of the Tang Dynasty more emphasis on imagination and literary talent, not just the history of the nature of things, but as the history of Zhi Zhi who is also the novel did not stop. The Legend of the Song Dynasty to the novel on a gradual decline, which followed the rise of this so that after processing will become a scholar so many novel and Romance novels such as "Romance of the Three Kingdoms", "Outlaws of the Marsh", "Journey to the West." The author of such novels is the use of private creative and re-created to describe the circumstances of the touching scenes of brilliant and vivid active in shaping the character known, there are obvious story-telling style of language. Here by the redevelopment, it will become an independent literary creation rather than things to come together with the civil process, the representative of this type is the "Golden Lotus", it was an open and ordinary life on the road, the reality is that literature has come a long way The development of the latter's "A Dream of Red Mansions" in ancient China Geng Shiba realism to the novels of the summit. "54" after the novelist began to learn from China's western fiction writing practices, and gradually out a new path. Western novels, is the "Renaissance" after the rapid development of mature. The development of the Middle Ages novel near-stagnation in the West, 14, the end of the century "Renaissance" to overthrow the literature of the Church of control, 15, appeared in the western end of the century to promote freedom of thought and the liberation of personality in order to describe the reality of life and portray characters from all walks of life for the content of the Humanist novels, is to tie in with this type of novel anti-feudal Europe at the time of arising at the same time it also set the novel in the West to human describing the tone of the main things. Jiaqiu Italy's "Decameron", Spain's Cervantes "Don Quixote" is the kind of representative works of fiction. The resulting novel is a classical, elegant favor of its national language to standardize the writing of this novel in 17th century France's most well-developed. As a note on behalf of Corneille's "Cid" neoclassical story of the rise of Western novels have been a language substantially improved. The beginning of the 18th century to promote popular science knowledge, enlightenment of the public consciousness for the purpose of the Enlightenment novels, of which there are relatively well-known German Goethe's "Faust", the United Kingdom Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" and the Swift "Gulliver's Travels" and so on, this type of novel to the emergence of the bourgeois revolution at the time to mold public opinion. In the 19th century, romantic fiction, realistic novels and critical realism novel turn to occupy the leading position in the field of fiction. Romantic novels, such as France Victor Hugo's "Notre Dame de Paris", Goethe's "juvenile Witt of trouble" and so on, imaginative, unusual ideas, language and imaginative, strong feelings. Efforts to reflect the reality of the novel is the essence of life, and depict typical life of a typical phenomenon in the United Kingdom Dickens, France and Germany are of such novels as a representative of the writer. Critical realism novels exposed the efforts of the decadent feudal system and capitalist society, the dark, in-depth criticism of the reality of evil, France Balzac and Maupassant, the United Kingdom of Charlotte, Bronte,. Russia's Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, the United States of a large number of writers such as Mark Twain's works belong to this category. Value today, the three novels in the West is still the most important of the three types of literary fiction. East-West novel on the history of the development of more or less the case. Second, the characteristics of the novel in the West In addition to the basic characteristics of the novel, the story of the West also have their own characteristics are as follows: 1, the traditional Chinese novel attention to the characters, language and the details of the description, in contradiction to the conflict to display the images, but the character of a single, small changes in the absence of the main flu. Western novels are more people pay attention to the psychological description, stressed that mining figure in the subconscious mind, good at writing full, the changes in the strong sense of the main characters. Again, "coach Lin Feng Snow Mountain Temple" in the figure is only through dialogue and action leads to contradictions and conflicts, but Anna Karenina Wogui before a series of conflicts only with his description of the psychological will be able to express their clear; for poetry in Lin In the performance of her literary talent, and Paul with his inner monologue of the ideal; Zhang Zhong-Yong has only the character, but Jane Eyre's character is the brave, strong, warm, kind-hearted, and so many of the character and rubbing and Cheng's. In short, people in the area described in the West has its own unique features. 2, China compared with Western fiction novel plot twists and turns more and more complete story. Plot twists and turns, the story is complete fiction China's unique traditional arts. The Wei and Jin Zhi Zhi people on the novel twists and turns with vivid characteristics. Tang legend in the layout of many of the famous, magnificent anomaly, rigorous and clever, dramatic plot development. The contents of the Ming and Qing Dynasties novels scattered irregular, undulating waves, Cuoluoyouzhi, careful structure, an integral whole. "A Dream of Red Mansions", everywhere She Fu, Hui turning point, the story of Jia's best writing. Western plot in respect of the outstanding works, although there are many, but it can not be compared with the Chinese novel. 3, concise and lively Chinese language novel, rich in content and rich Western novels. Chinese folk artists absorbed the novel language, at the same time inherited the fine traditions of ancient prose, often a few words will be able to outline the incident or the people. Western novels in the author includes a broad range of knowledge, involve the community in many ways, so rich in content and rich people can gain knowledge in many areas. Engels said he was in Balzac's novel about 19th century France's domestic situation than he received any reports are more. Western novels have different characteristics, and also in the West different aesthetic concepts to a certain extent related. 4, Western novels have been the rule of the feudal culture of oppression destroyed. Chinese feudal culture makes the development of the novel is extremely difficult, Ming and Qing Dynasties more people to write stories for shame, so many great writers living, creating the conditions are not covered, many of the great works of authors who do not know. Western novels in the feudal culture makes almost the whole of the Middle Ages in the development of extremely slow, and many talented writers were forced to church services, wrote some of the religious nature of the article dry hole. Third, Western novels in the future prospects for the development of End of the Qing Dynasty, China and the West have begun to understand the other side of the system, the advantages of the novel in the West have been constantly learn from each other. Of course, due to historical reasons, the Chinese side of the draw a little more. To this day, the novelist in the West efforts are still two researchers in the novel's artistic charm, although the different languages of each other's appreciation of the arts to a certain extent, but the United States are interlinked. We have every reason to believe that in the near future, the novel art in the West will ultimately learn from each other and integrate, develop and reach new artistic heights. References: "Foreign Literature" Shanghai Translation Publishing House Zhou Xu Liang "Contemporary Literature election," Zhang Zhong, such as Beijing University Publishing House "Chinese literature history of the development of" Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House Liu Jie "Literary History of Europe" People's Literature Publishing House Yangzhou Han Wu Da-yuan Zhao Rui radish "Three high school language textbook used by the five dates of the" People's Education Press仅供参考，请自借鉴。希望对您有帮助。
lostinyoudaidai
浅谈中西方语言、思维与文化差异的现代思考论文
摘要：以英、汉两种语言的形式和表达习惯为切入点, 进一步印证萨皮尔-沃尔夫假设有关语言决定思维并影响思维的基本结论。在二语习得中要注意两点:其一, 通晓外语首先要精通母语;其二, 中西各个领域长期、深入的交融, 可能造就出一大批从思维到行为上汉化的西方人和西化的中国人, 其前提是精通双语。
关键词：语言; 思维; 中西文化差异; 中西比较;
中西文化比较的根本应是透过众多中西文化差异的表象, 挖掘出这些差异的本质, 如是, 才有益于更准确地研究和把握好中西比较这一内涵丰富、纷繁复杂的课题。由此, 语言与思维的关系问题是中西文化比较之源, 换言之, 有关中西文化比较所有问题的研究, 都可能归结到两种语言及每一语言对各自使用者思维的影响这一维度上。
一、语言与思维的关系
“语言决定论”由萨皮尔提出, 指出语言不仅反映文化与行为, 而且与思维模式互相影响, 并由此得出“语言决定论”的结论, 认为语言决定思维模式, 语言的用法或结构会反映出人类的习惯或模式。“语言相对论”是萨皮尔的学生沃尔夫提出的, 认为语言不仅影响思维, 也同时影响认知。萨皮尔-沃尔夫假设提出迄今已有七十余年的历史。一直以来, 学界对该假说的评价众多, 批评之声尤甚。角度不同、研究对象迥异, 自然难有定论。不妨以汉语、英语两种语言的差异对其使用者思维方式的影响为例, 来探讨萨皮尔-沃尔夫假设的理论解释力。
1. 汉、英语言形式的差异对思维的影响
(1) 文字起源的差异。汉字源于象形文字通过其字形可引发意义上的联想。因此, 汉语有助于使用者形象思维能力的发展。英语属于拼音文字, 字形和意义没有直接的联系。为了清晰地表达思想和传递信息, 词与词之间需要形成特定的语法逻辑关系。因此, 对某一概念的认识必须遵循由定义到推理的思考过程, 这就促进了英语使用者抽象思维能力与逻辑思维能力的发展。
(2) 语言结构的差异。英语隶属印欧语系, 汉语则属于汉藏语系;英语结构紧凑, 汉语结构松散。英语中频繁使用关联词, 句子是由各种连接词衔接而成;汉语中则很少使用关联词, 句意的通顺依靠意义的连贯, 依靠体会和领悟字面之外的深意。由此可见, 英语语言结构呈现的是分析思维, 亦即逻辑思维;而汉语结构呈现的则更多是关联思维而非分析思维。
2. 汉、英语言习惯的差异对思维的影响
(1) 复合句语序的差异。英语注重形合, 即侧重形式, 注重结构严谨, 因此, 英语复合句的语序表现为以谓语动词为轴心, 运用各种形式的关联词, 把句子的其他成分嵌扣在主句的主谓结构前后, 呈现出由中心词向外扩展的空间图式;而汉语则体现为意合, 其复合句的语序多遵循时间顺序或事物发展过程, 体现为句子形式和表达内容的一致性。英、汉复合句语序的不同, 反映出的是英语的分析与逻辑思维和汉语的直觉思维之间的差异。
(2) 叙事顺序的不同。汉语叙述和说明事物的习惯是由大到小、由一般到特殊、由整体到局部, 其思维方式表现为发散型思维;英语叙事和说明事物时习惯于从特殊到一般、从个体到整体, 其思维方式表现为分析性思维。
(3) 语态使用的差别。英语的主动语态和被动语态同等重要, 句子主语的选择也不局限于人称主语;相反, 汉语中的句子通常以人称作主语, 以使用主动语态为主, 大量的被动句都习惯以主动形式表达。英语、汉语语言表达在语态使用习惯上的不同, 体现在思维上就是英语重逻辑、重客观思维, 而汉语则重主观思维。
(4) 语篇展开方式的差异。英语篇章的组织和发展呈直线型, 英语段落通常以主题句开头, 直截了当点明段落的主题, 接续的各句都围绕该主题展开, 属于典型的演绎与归纳型段落, 而汉语的篇章发展呈螺旋型, 篇章的主题绝大多数不通过直截了当的方式点明, 而是从各种角度间接阐述出来, 习惯于先分后总, 先因后果。英、汉语言语篇展开方式的不同, 表明英语思维是线性思维, 而汉语思维则是螺旋式思维。
3. 语言对思维的影响
基于前文对英、汉两种语言之间语言形式和语言习惯的差异所体现出的思维方式差别的比较与分析, 不难发现汉语的象形文字和英语的拼音文字从本源上决定了分别以汉语和英语为本族语的中国人与英、美等西方人思维方式上存在差异的必然性。象形文字所可能引发的形象思维、关联思维、发散思维、主观思维或直觉思维、螺旋式思维等, 都在汉语及其使用者方面得到体现;而拼音文字所可能带来的逻辑思维、抽象思维、分析性思维、线性思维等, 也都在英语及其使用者方面得以印证。由此看出, 至少就汉语、英语而言, 萨皮尔论述的“语言决定思维模式”不无道理。此外, 英、汉两种语言的语言形式及语言习惯对各自使用者思维的影响, 也在上文的比照中得到了充分的体现。因此, 语言决定思维也影响思维。
二、中西方语言与思维之比较
中国哲学方式偏好运用直觉体验的方式去获取和传达涵盖力极强、极灵活、为认识主体留有极大领悟空间的认识成果。西方的哲学思维则希望通过严密的逻辑推理去获得和传递精确可靠稳定的知识, 因而它重视规则的缜密, 力求避免认识主题理解和阐释对象时的任意性, 重视认识的客观性和同一性。
1. 语言与文化密不可分
美国语言学家C·克拉姆契曾经指出:“语言表达着、承载着, 也象征着文化现实, 两者不可分。”美国人类学家E·萨皮尔强调, 语言不能脱离文化而存在。即文化的载体是语言, 语言反映着文化。每一个民族都有自己创造的精神财富, 也有自己的独特历史、文化、宗教以及生活方式、风俗习惯和道德观念等。这些内容反映在语言中, 又通过语言予以表达与传播。不同民族的语言及其文化都有特殊的'表现形式和内容, 反映出的不仅是各自语言所代表的特定民族的历史传统、风土人情、宗教信仰等因素, 更是其观察世界、看待事物的思维模式及行为模式。
2. 中西文化差异更多源于英、汉语言之差异
文化差异的各类具象表现, 大多可归因为思维模式的不同。中国传统思维注重实践经验, 因而借助于直觉体会, 通过知觉从总体上模糊而直接地把握认识对象的内在本质和规律, 即“以经验为基础, 通过由此及彼的类别联系和意义涵摄, 沟通人与人, 人与物, 人与社会达到协同效应。”中国人对事物的认识只满足于对经验的总结和对现象的描述, 而不追求对感性认识的深层思考与对现象背后事物本质的哲学思辨。这种思维机制与生活保持着直接联系, 不向分析判断的抽象思辨发展。大自然呈现在自己面前的只是一个感性的现象世界, 不可分析, 只可感觉。而西方思维则具有浓厚的实证、理性和思辨的色彩。古希腊早期的哲学家们在自然界的各种观察和实验中渗透着理性思维与哲学思辨的成分, 在收集和整理材料的基础上, 利用理性思辨的力量对世界进行了解说。
基于萨皮尔-沃尔夫假设的“语言决定思维也影响思维”的理论, 比照两位学者总结的中西文化思维差异与前文探讨的英、汉语言不同引发的各自使用者思维方式的具体差异, 可以推论, “固定的思维模式”或“不同思维方式”主要源于语言的不同, 也就是说, 中西文化的差异更多地源于英、汉语言之差异。
三、结论
不同语言使用者因语言不同而存在思维模式的差别, 思维模式的差别导致行为方式的差异。沃尔夫认为:“我们关注的个体思维过程只能通过对该个体所说的语言进行深入的研究来确定。”所以, 中西文化比较应从语言比较入手, 语言差异应该是中西比较的始点也是归结点。吕叔湘先生曾指出:“对于中国学生有用的帮助是让他认识英语和汉语的差别……尽可能用汉语的情况来跟英语作比较, 让他通过这种比较得到更深刻的领会。”因此, 在二语习得中要注意两点:其一, 通晓外语首先要精通母语;其二, 中西各个领域长期、深入的交融, 可能造就出一大批从思维到行为上汉化的西方人和西化的中国人, 其前提是精通双语。
参考文献
[1]申小龙.语言与文化的现代思考[M].郑州:河南人民出版社, 2000.
[2] and culture context in translating[M].Shangha:i Shanghai Foreign Language Educa-tion Press, 2007.
[3]爱德华·泰勒.原始文化[M].桂林:广西师范大学出版社, 2005.
[4]HOFSTEDE ’sequences:comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations[M].Thousand Oaks, Cliffth:Sage Publications, 2001.
[5]B·L·沃尔夫.论语言、思维和现实[M].长沙:湖南教育出版社, 2001.
[6]吕叔湘.中国人学英语[M].北京:商务印书馆, 1980.
小小桐桐
语言既是人类社会进行交际的重要工具，又是文化的重要组成部分，语言和文化密不可分。下文是我为大家整理的关于英语语言文化方面论文的范文，欢迎大家阅读参考!
解读酒店英语中的语言文化
摘 要： 酒店服务人员应从与饭店英语相关的中西方文化知识出发，领会文化差异和语言差异，以矫正由于中西文化差异而带来的语言偏差，从而达到学习语言、吸收文化和服务客人的目的。
关键词： 酒店英语 语言文化 文化差异
一、引言
语言与文化密切相关，不同文化习惯的语言不可避免地会发生冲突，而跨文化语言沟通存在于涉外高星酒店服务的各个环节。因此，酒店英语不仅是语言知识的学习，而且是语言文化和交际技能的培训。语言的本质属性不是语言知识而是思维。当一个人不了解该语言所蕴涵的文化时，那必然会发生语用错误。
二、具有本质特性的酒店英语
酒店英语属旅游专业英语范畴，具有专业英语的针对性(pertinence)和服务英语的得体性(decency)。语言标准应为:明晰、通畅、表意得当。如：
Waiter:How would you like with your steak?Rare，medium or well-done?(请问您牛排要几成熟?三成，五成还是七成?)
Guest:Rare，please.(三成。)
通常，rare是“稀少”的意思;medium是“中间”的意思;well-done是“干得好”的意思。而出现在服务员为客人点菜的流程中，它的意思就非常具有专业英语的针对性了。语言学家吕叔湘先生对言语得体有这样的描述:“此时此地此人说此事，这样的说法最好;对另外的人在另外的场合说的还是这件事，这样的说法就不一定最好，就应使用另一种说法。”请看下面这组酒店客人和服务员之间的对话:
Guest:Hi，waiter，you speak beautiful English.
Waiter: Thank you，sir. Welcome to Holiday Inn.
Waiter顺应英语习惯欣然接受，而非按中文习惯去拒绝，说“No，no，My English is not good.”以示谦虚，否则只会使顾客感到莫名其妙，不知所云。由此看出，服务语言的得体性在酒店英语的情境应用中显现得淋漓尽致。
三、文化差异(Cultural Difference)在酒店英语中的体现
文化影响着语言学习的思维方式，因此中英两种语言文化交汇时，必然会发生冲突。语言学家曾指出:“在与外族人交谈时，本族人对于他们在语音和语法方面的错误较宽容。与此相反，违反说话规则被认为是不够礼貌的。因为本族人不大可能认识到社会语言学的相对性。”这种情况又被称之为“社交语用失误”，它主要是指由于文化背景差异，交际时出现语用习惯错误。在酒店服务岗位的英语使用时，中英文化的差异将会给酒店服务中的语言交流带来不便。
(一)招呼(Greeting)用语
按照中国的文化习惯，问候和打招呼时，常爱涉及对方本身，询问的内容显得十分具体。中国人见面打招呼时最喜欢用的口头语如：
“吃饭了吗?”(Have you finished your dinner?)
“上哪儿去?”(Where have you been?)
如果将上面的招呼用语拿来用在老外身上，定会令他们感到丈二和尚摸不着头脑。例如:在酒店，初次见面对一位英美女客人说：“Did you have your lunch?”她会感到非常诧异。因为在他们的文化里，这样打招呼是暗示邀请的意思。这也是酒店英语服务中服务人员要引以为戒的。
与之不同，英语国家人打招呼，通常以天气(weather)、健康状况(health)、体育(sports)或兴趣爱好(interest/hobby)作为话题。如：
What a lovely day!(今天天气真好呀!)
I like hiking，and you?(我喜欢徒步旅行，你呢?)
(二)介绍(Introduction)用语
中国人小学第一节英语课便学了“What’s your name?”这句话。而这句话伴随许多人长大，考过了四、六级，TOEFL，IELTS，但对于它在何种情况下使用却鲜有解释。实际上，英语国家的人在第一次见面时一般先把自己的名字告诉对方，如“I am ...”，对方会自然地说出自己的姓名。因此“I’m ...”这里可以直接译成“请问贵姓?”。即使在填写表格、面谈等场合需要问及姓名时，一般也只说“Your name，please?”或“May I have your name?”如果使用“What’s your name?”会有一种被审问的感觉。一般只有海关人员、警察采用这种问讯句式。因此酒店员工在客人check-in(入住登记)或check-out(办理退房)的时候，一定要注意礼貌而得体的问询，以免冒犯客人。
(三)称赞(compliment)和接受赞扬
在人际交往中，谦虚和低调是中国人崇尚的表达方式，常会用“哪里哪里”、“不行，差远了”来回应别人的夸奖。而西方人则认为实话实说才能友好往来，而会欣然接受来自他人的赞扬。也常用赞美作为交谈的话题，如赞美对方出色的工作等。面对客人的赞美，员工的回答应是:“Thank you.”如：
Guest:You did a good job!
Waitress:Ah，thank you.
(四)关于隐私(privacy)
在中国，初次见面询问对方年龄、婚姻、收入是很自然随意的事情。而倾向自我、独立和自由的英语国家的人，会认为这些内容涉及个人隐私。如：
Are you married?(你结婚了吗?)
What’s your salary?(你的薪水是多少?)
以上内容涉及个人隐私，服务员切忌问及客人此类问题。因此，当酒店员工对入住客人的基本情况不甚了解时，“Is your husband/wife with you?”或“How many children do you have?”这样的问话是不得体的。
(五)搭配词语(phrase)表达
搭配词语指词与词的横向组合关系。搭配是民族文化中约定俗成的，不能用中文的搭配思维去套用到英语里面。在酒店用语中经常用到的如:“红茶”英语为“black tea”，而“black coffee”用汉语表示为“不加糖的咖啡”;“红酒”在英语中是“wine”(不是red wine);而white wine中文也不译成“白酒”。因此在搭配词语运用时，同样要注意词汇表达中的文化内涵。
四、尊重语言文化、提高饭店英语应用能力
世界各民族由于历史渊源、思想方式、生活习性、审美观念、价值理念、宗教信仰等不同，从而产生了文化上的差异。语用能力的提高离不开目标语国家的文化因素，因此要增强文化意识、主动自觉地吸收并融入他人文化环境中。
在培养文化意识(culture consciousness)，理解语言内涵的同时，还应注重不同的文化有着不同的语用原则，注重词汇文化差异、句法文化差异及日常习俗文化差异来强化文化意识，为提高正确语用能力奠定基础。不能视酒店英语为简单的口语交流，必须增强对英语文化背景知识的学习，要树立英汉语言差异意识，懂得英语在不同语境中的应用，即掌握一些文化语用知识。
五、结语
综上所述，酒店服务人员应改掉以往只重视语言本身而忽视语言文化的不合理做法，把文化因素纳入语言之中，用英语进行有效得体的交际。努力培养文化习得意识并使文化的规范与语言技能的培养同步进行。不仅注意语言形式的正确，还要重视语言运用是否恰当。既要有母语和英语两种语言的对比语言学修养，又要有两国比较文化背景学方面的知识，这才是成为国际化酒店具有跨文化意识人才的首要条件。
参考文献：
[1]Denney 著.梁晓波，王才美，刘亚琴译.现代美国饭店经营与管理[M].湖南科技出版社，2001.
[2]鲍伯・里宾斯基著.李正喜译.专业酒水[M].大连理工大学出版社，2002.
[3]许元娜.提高大学生英语学习能力的研究[J].齐齐哈尔医学院学报，2009.
[4]刘燕婷.旅游英语情景体验式教学初探[J].淮北职业技术学院学报，2009，(2).
浅析美式英语语言文化特点分析
摘要：美国文化是崇尚自由、平等和自我的文化，其包容性十分强，具有多元化的民族融合性。其核心文化特征是追求人人平等和自我价值的实现。这些文化特征在美式英语文化中有着深刻的体现。文章结合美国文化的产生背景对其语言分析特点进行分析探讨。
关键词：美式英语;语言文化;特点
引言
美国文化是一种非常独特的民族文化。从世界文化的区域和类型来说，美国文化属于西方文化范畴。但与其他西方文化相比，美国文化有着许多迥然不同的地方，它不但有别于与其有着亲缘关系的英国文化。而且有别于它的邻国加拿大和其他欧洲国家的文化。语言与文化的关系是水乳交融、不可分割的。
首先，语言体现了文化。一方面，语言是文化的一部分。根据文化的狭义定义，文化是从社会习得的知识。而语言则是人类对客观事实的认识和感受的反应，属于人类文化的一部分。另一方面，语言是文化的载体。因为语言是人类思维和交流的工具，也是人类形成思想的中介。本文试图从美国英语所反映的移民文化、价值观念、新文化等方面来分析美式英语语言文化的形成特点。
一、美式英语的形成背景
美国英语的形成与发展与美国的移民历史所带来的文化大融合有着密切关系。17世纪初，英国开始在北美进行殖民活动，在北美建立多个殖民地，而在殖民地的通用语言就是英语。之后不断有欧洲人移民到这片大陆上。自殖民地时期，美国英语就在多民族的接触与融合中从异族的语言文化中吸取营养，充实内涵，加快语言的多元化发展，形成美国英语的独特的融合特征。德语、法语、西班牙语、荷兰语和印第安语、黑人语言等移民群体的语言词汇不断渗透到美国人使用的英语里。
另一方面，美国政治、经济、人口结构和社会生活的特殊性，推动了作为社会交际工具的语言美国英语的独立与发展。在词汇、语音和语法结构等方面有别于英国英语的民族语言，美国英语的形成关键在于这个民族在新的社会和生活环境中不拘一格地创造和使用新词。而美国英语中丰富的新词都是出现在普通大众的言谈之中。
由于美国新社会特有的力量和群众性语言占据优势，因此，在美国，语言影响的流程是由下而上发展的。在美国英语中，最贴近生活和最能反映平民要求与社会生活特征的是俚语，俚语是美国英语词汇的主要来源之一。方言和俚语一样分布广泛，来自社会各个阶层，是美国民族语言的生命源泉，既有浓厚的民族文化内涵，又有丰富的表现力和多样性，大量的方言和俚语使得美国英语在较短的时间内区别于英国英语而成为美利坚民族的民族语言。
二、美式英语的语言文化特点
1、个体主义价值观及其在美国英语中的表现
美国文化以个体为本位，个人主义在美国发展到登峰造极的地步，是美国价值观的核心。它的主要内容是通过自力更生达到自我实现。与它联系最紧密的是自由平等竞争。机会均等和个人自由是实现自我价值的基本保障，而竞争是实现个人价值的根本途径。美国人在创造自己文化的同时，也创造了许多表现个人主义的词汇。最有代表性的如：self-absorption(自我专注)、self-limitation(自我制约)、self-cultivate(自我修养)、self-conquest(自我战胜)、self-admiration(自我赞赏)、self-control(自我控制)、self-dependence(自立)、self-reliance(自我依靠)、self-responsibility(自我负责)、self-advancement(自我发展)、self-salesmanship(自我宣传)、self-fulfilling(自我实现)、self-protection(自我保护)等。个体主义价值观特别重视对个人空间和私生活的保护和尊重。"privacy"(隐私)一词在美国人的意识中占有异常重要的位置。无论是在生活空间还是在情感处理上，哪怕是对一个未成年的孩子，都会尊重对方的选择和隐私。
2、美国英语与印第安文化
土著印第安人是美洲大陆最早的定居者，他们的祖先是具有亚洲蒙古人血统的游牧狩猎者，他们于后冰川时代跨过白令海峡来到北美大陆。从美国英语中可以找出许多反映印第安文化的词语。如山川、河流、湖泊等。美国英语吸收了约有2000个左右的印第安词语。
印第安人善于狩猎并拥有种植的技艺，因此很多动物和植物的名称都来自印第安语。如mose(麋)、pecan(美洲核桃)等。美国各州的名称，有一半是来自印第安语。如密苏里州(Missouri)、俄勒冈州(Oregon)、密西根州(Michigan)、马萨诸塞州(Massachusetts)、犹他州(Utah)等。另外，许多与印第安人的部落关系、生活方式、宗教习俗、农作物以及社会机构有关的词也来自印第安语。
3、美国英语使用的通俗化和标新立异的意识
美国人在词语的使用上有通俗化的特点，他们不喜欢咬文嚼字，说话力求形象、易懂。最能体现美国人用词通俗化的是美国俚语。美国俚语是平民百姓的语言，虽通俗形象不矫揉造作，但有些也难免流于粗俗，这些粗俗的俚语不宜登大雅之堂。但有时为了避免语言单调和落入俗套，上流人物甚至总统也敢离径叛道。贵为总统，出言粗俗，无非是想表明自己敢于向常规与正统挑战，在语言表达上突出自己的粗犷个性和创新意识。
汽车文化是美国社会的显著特点，美国人经常借用汽车的商标来比喻其他产品的质量和等级。如，美国Ford汽车公司曾生产一种滞销的Edsel牌汽车，于是，Edlse就常被用来比喻为"彻底失败的产品或人"。
结语
美国英语丰富多彩，反映了美国文化的千姿百态。而且，美国英语的每一个演变都有其社会背景和文化内涵，是与美国社会的发展齐头并进的。它们真实地反映了美国社会的发展历程，是美国各个历史时期社会活动和文化思潮的折射。在美国英语中，不仅蕴藏着美利坚民族特有的传统文化、价值观念和性格特征，而且也突出地体现了语言的时代特征。
参考文献
[1]李正国.从美国地名浅析美式英语来源[J].内蒙古民族大学学报.2007(03)
[2]陈凌.美国文化在英语中的投影[J].广西师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版).2001(02)
[3]张莉娟.美国英语所反映出的美国文化[J].陕西教育学院学报.2007(01)
京城第一伪娘
隐喻的中西方文化差异Abstract: Metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon but also a way of thinking, which is one of the basic methods for human survival and cognition. It is rooted in language, thought and culture. Through the analysis and comparison of the use and concept of metaphor in different countries, we find that its universality and commonality of the metaphor as a basic human cognitive activities. However, metaphor in different languages reflects a different way of thinking and behavior and different cultural patterns. Owing to the different two modes of thinking and culture, there are some differences in understanding and formation that can not be ignored. Therefore, this paper will discuss the questions : metaphor, cross-cultural differences, translation. 1. Preamble Metaphor is a common phenomenon, a large number of people use metaphor to express his feelings and ideas. British scientists rhetoric Richards (IARichards) once said, "We have day-to-day in almost every conversation in three sentences may be a metaphor." According to statistics, life around the use of 4,700,000 new metaphor, 2,140,000 stereotypes of metaphor. Research in recent years, there is a great metaphor. This article introduced in the definition of metaphor on the basis of summing up the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western metaphor, and that its culture, precisely because of the prevalence of metaphor, how to translate metaphor has become a very important issue in the latter part of the article is aimed at The translation of metaphor put forward a translation of the three strategies. This paper studies aimed at trying to comparative analysis of English and Chinese in a large number of day-to-day language of metaphor to express, find out the differences and similarities, in order to be able to accurately translate the article in good metaphor to explore a little. This article is about the metaphor from the point of view to explore the differences in the way Thinking allows us to a deeper understanding of language, culture, the relationship between thinking and can more clearly understand the different ethnic language, culture, way of thinking, and so on On the nature of translation. 2. Metaphors in Chinese and Western studies In 1980, Lakoff & Johnson (George Lakoff & Mark Johnson) made a "living metaphor" (Metaphors We Live By) of the book, a modern metaphor to open a new chapter in the school. Domestic academia on the "metaphor" This is also a review of the system, such as Lin Wu's book "Study abroad metaphor Looking at the" beam-setting "metaphor research," Li of China and India "The main subjects Metaphor" and so on. However, the Chinese metaphor for the academic study of rare. "Chinese scholars on the study of metaphor, I am afraid the real contribution should be through the metaphor of the Chinese characteristics of research and study, through the metaphor of the Chinese and other languages in the comparative study of metaphor, metaphor for the establishment of a more general theory of the strong, and even unique The basis. "Lin Wu in the book" metaphor of the basic research the status quo, and the focus of the trend "in the main text, put forward a model of cultural metaphors with the relationship:" The language of metaphor is the emergence of expression into the system, which not only reflects the psychological Structure, but also reflect the different cultural models also play a role. " metaphor in the relationship between Chinese and Western cultures relationship Correspond to (corresponding) refers to the relationship between the two languages, English and Chinese in the meaning and metaphor in the use of the same meaning in the culture and image, and so on and-one mapping. This is because the survival of mankind itself, as well as all the external conditions, including the geographical environment, climate change, and the whole of human society and cultural background are certain there is a common, which formed a common humanity of their own and the outside world on many issues. In the "angry" mood, the English are angry that physiological responses, such as: grind one's teeth. (Teeth), bare one's teeth. (Ziyaliezui) an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. (an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth), reflecting the Chinese culture on the basis of common experience. non-correspondence English-Chinese metaphor, after all, rooted in two different languages on the soil, resulting in very different cultural backgrounds, fully corresponds to the few metaphors, the vast majority do not have common cultural identity in order to form the corresponding non-(non-corresponding ) Relations. Non-relationship metaphor can be roughly divided into three categories: Vehicle counterpart, Yu Yi does not correspond to English and Chinese in some cases there is the same as a metaphor, but in their own language and culture in the meaning of the metaphor means is different, even different. Peacock in the Chinese culture is auspicious, a symbol of beauty, especially the Dai people to express jumped Pavaner desire to better their own. If the Chinese people will be likened to a peacock, it means that beautiful light. However, in English, peacock (Peacock) is a symbol of pride, often interpreted as arrogance, love to show off. For example, They were eager to take the young peacock down a peg. (They want to pressure a pressure that the arrogant young guy's momentum). counterpart Yu Yi, the vehicle does not correspond to English-Chinese two nations due to their differences, from different angles to look at things the same, it will be a different analogy. As a result both English and Chinese language there is a different vehicle, but Yu was referring to was basically the same as the meaning of the case, that is the same kind of non-correspondence. Such as: a person described as the hearts of anxious, restless, Chinese is "ants on the hot pan" and English is "a cat on the bricks". There are similar: To kick down the ladder. Guohechaiqiao. Yu Yu Yi and do not correspond to Some of the metaphors Yu-Yu has a meaning and it refers to the language and culture are closely related, in another culture often can not find corresponding Yu and Yu Yi, which resulted in a culture known as the default Phenomenon. For example: in English "my rib" I am referring to Yu's wife, it comes from the "Bible" story, that is, Adam (Adam)'s wife Eve (Eve) God is with a piece of Adam's rib made. The Chinese did not, "the Bible" cultural background, and there was no analogy with rib habit, so the formation of a corresponding gap. Similarly, "ugly duckling" (Ugly Duckling) refers to the metaphor will get ahead of Little, "early bird" refers to the diligent Yu, in the words into Chinese language, culture, as a result of the default, can not find a corresponding relationship between metaphor . Chinese and Western cultures in the common metaphor Metaphor and culture to a large extent, human beings have a common understanding, rooted in the people's own day-to-day experience. In this connection, often between different ethnic groups are the same. Both English and Chinese language in a lot of abstract thinking that the metaphorical expression is the same. For example: the human child in the period to form a position on the concept of input in that direction in the form of many of them easily understood, including the position expressed by metaphor, which has become a fixed pattern of thinking. For example: The term direction (up, down) to describe people's social status, physical, emotional, and other abstract concepts to the case when the good is up; Sad is down. We Chinese are also not difficult to find a similar sentence: "Gas Prices "," enhance the social status "and" vision "and" depressed. " Since the objective laws of nature with the relative unity of different cultures to understand the nature of the course is similar to the cognitive experience. in the metaphor of the difference between Chinese and Western cultures As the English-Chinese geographical and cultural differences, living in two different cultures in practice there are a lot of differences, and different life experiences and let people understand the objective world, a different language carries different nationalities Cultural characteristics and cultural information. Understanding of metaphor is not out of socio-cultural backgrounds. For example, social and cultural impact of the color words is deep-rooted, some color words in different cultures in an entirely different meaning, has a distinctive feature of our national culture. Such as: English, said in green "inexperienced" and "shallow knowledge", such as: "a green hand", "I was very green when I started working there." The Chinese like to express the meaning of the word is "yellow" Such as: "Huangmaoyatou" and "flower girl". Cultural background knowledge is the metaphor to create a rich source of thinking, as the Eastern and Western cultures are different, metaphors in English and Chinese applications there are also significant differences. The metaphor of the cross-cultural differences between Chinese and Western influence Language is a cultural change in the development of the complex, subject to political, economic, historical, environmental and other factors. Chinese and Western styles are different, but in many ways to infiltrate interaction and integration, language differences and cultural metaphor for the inevitable impact is complex and diverse. metaphorical expression of cultural conflict Different nationalities in the world to observe a different perspective and ideas, different cultures there are a lot of conflict or inconsistency metaphor. If the animal metaphors, in English Long (dragon) is a kind of evil, will belch out smoke monster. "Bible", the dragon is the devil, is a symbol of evil and terror, there is a terrible vicious meaning. The Chinese dragon is in power, the auspicious symbol of Chinese traditional culture, the Chinese have "Wangzichenglong", "descendants of the Dragon." The same analogy in different cultures, different meaning, of two cultures "Dragon" to give a different connotation. differences in living conditions caused by differences in metaphor In English is a lot of metaphor and marine-related, such as: all at sea (at a loss what to do); drink like a fish (drinking cow); fish in the air (Shuizhonglaoyue); give up the ship (give up). In Chinese, there are a lot of the horse or cattle pose a metaphor, such as: "a willing ox" (a willing horse) Gan means to serve the community; "old ox" (a working horse) refers to the hard work; "bragging "(Talk horse), and so on. This is due to different geographical location and natural environment caused by different cultural metaphor. Britain is an island, ultimately, dependent on the sea, and China is a large agricultural country, farming culture deeply feudal society. different religious and cultural differences arising from the metaphor Religious culture of human culture is an important part of it by referring to the nation's religious beliefs, such as the formation of the sense of culture, "the Bible" in the story, with its language and meaning has become a feature of daily life in the West in terms of . For example, power of the keys (the keys to the kingdom of heaven; the rights of the Pope), in the right church, but in the wrong pew (in general is right, but not the details), and so on. Chinese culture and Buddhism, Taoism and more affected by the impact of Confucianism, the Chinese, there are a lot of related argot. "Jiehuaxianfo"; "临时抱佛脚"; "做一天和尚撞一天钟" and so on. It is due to the diversity of culture, resulting in the differences between English and Chinese metaphor. This difference to the cross-cultural communication has brought the impact. As a foreign language students, do not understand the difference between metaphor and language will make mistakes, sometimes mistakenly made good as pleasant, caused by either one or both of the conversation unpleasant; also sometimes mocked as a praise. When a native language other operators do not understand the language contained in the cultural differences, it is often difficult for such language to accurately convey the meaning of the understanding, difficulty to the cross-cultural exchange. 3. Metaphor of the three methods of translation The translation of metaphor not only accurately and effectively convey the original language, but also loyal, accessible, complete reproduction of the original language and cultural connotation and significance. But in the West because of cultural differences and different, so the translation of metaphor in English on the need to consider not only its literal sense, and so on, but also in the West should pay attention to their cultural differences. American Eugene Nida said: "Translation is the exchange between the two cultures. The real success of the translation, even more familiar with the two cultures is more important to master two languages. Because only in terms of its role in the culture In the background will only be meaningful. "Therefore, the translation of metaphor to combining Chinese and Western cultures, and cultural backgrounds to leave the translation, can not be achieved between the two languages of the real exchange. Literal Translation The so-called "literal" is asked in the language when conditions permit, in the translation to maintain the original content, but also to maintain the original form, in particular, to maintain the original metaphor, the image of the nation, and other local color. In the literal translation method to maintain the original expression of the culture and at the same time, target enriched the vocabulary and expression, such as: "a Pandora's box" (Pandora's Box); "chain reaction" (chain reaction). In the original text and asked the information contained in the same culture, we should adopt the literal translation method. (1) You are my sunshine, my only sunshine. : You are my sun, my only sunshine. In Chinese and English, the sun is warm, beautiful, in both languages, they disseminate information on culture are the same. As a rule, and asked in the original text in the form of grammatical structure, similar to the style or color on basically the same, the law should adopt the literal translation. (1) He is another Shylock. : He is also a Shylock. (Note: Shakespeare's Shylock is "The Merchant of Venice" in a very harsh mean business People. ) (2) To carry coals to Newcastle. : Coal to Newcastle. (Note: "Newcastle" is a British coal, coal is superfluous here.) 4. Conclusion Metaphor as a way to figures of speech or skills, a unique feature of grammar, which features make the sentence more flexible and constructive, but the United States. Is a metaphor to express more complex ideas and things, a powerful tool. Wherever and whenever people in their daily lives are often used metaphor. As Mr. Lin Zhuang said: "The metaphor is no longer expanding his knowledge and understanding of a passive process. To help us in the form of new knowledge, the metaphor has played an active role so that we can better a better understanding of the objective world." In English and Chinese Metaphorical significance of the difference is due to cultural differences between East and West, that mode of thinking, moral values and sense of difference. However, different cultural impact of what is the concept of metaphor, it is still a need to examine and address the problem. At the same time, in the metaphor of the process of translation must pay special attention to cultural differences. The best translation is to be able to accurately reflect the true meaning of the author, as well as its cultural and stylistic characteristics of the translation, that is, the translation of metaphor to make as much as possible the original language and to achieve the target language culture, and so on.
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