足球英文论文参考文献

有关英国文化The culture of the United Kingdom is rich and varied, and has been influential on culture on a worldwide scale. It is a European state, and has many cultural links with its former colonies, particularly those that use the English language (the Anglosphere). Considerable contributions to British culture have been made over the last half-century by immigrants from the Indian Subcontinent and the West Indies. The origins of the UK as a political union of formerly independent states has resulted in the preservation of distinctive cultures in each of the home nations. Language Main article: Languages in the United Kingdom The United Kingdom has no official language. English is the main language and the de facto official language, spoken monolingually by an estimated 95% of the UK population. However, some nations and regions of the UK have frameworks for the promotion of their autochthonous languages. In Wales, English and Welsh are both widely used by officialdom, and Irish and Ulster Scots enjoy limited use alongside English in Northern Ireland, mainly in publicly commissioned translations. Additionally, the Western Isles council area of Scotland has a policy to promote Scottish Gaelic. Under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, which is not legally enforceable, the UK Government has committed itself to the promotion of certain linguistic traditions. Welsh, Scottish Gaelic and Cornish are to be developed in Wales, Scotland and Cornwall respectively. Other native languages afforded such protection include Irish in Northern Ireland, Scots in Scotland and Northern Ireland, where it is known in official parlance as "Ulster Scots" or "Ullans" but in the speech of users simply as "Scotch", and British Sign Language. The Arts Literature Sherlock Holmes, played here by Jeremy Brett, was created by British author Arthur Conan article: British literature The earliest native literature of the territory of the modern United Kingdom was written in the Celtic languages of the isles. The Welsh literary tradition stretches from the 6th century. Irish poetry also represents a more or less unbroken tradition from the 6th century to the present day, with the Ulster Cycle being of particular relevance to Northern Ireland. Anglo-Saxon literature includes Beowulf, a national epic, but literature in Latin predominated among educated elites. After the Norman Conquest Anglo-Norman literature brought continental influences to the isles. English literature emerged as a recognisable entity in the late 14th century, with the rise and spread of the London dialect of Middle English. Geoffrey Chaucer is the first great identifiable individual in English literature: his Canterbury Tales remains a popular 14th-century work which readers still enjoy today. Following the introduction of the printing press into England by William Caxton in 1476, the Elizabethan era saw a great flourishing of literature, especially in the fields of poetry and drama. From this period, poet and playwright William Shakespeare stands out as arguably the most famous writer in the world. The English novel became a popular form in the 18th century, with Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719), Samuel Richardson's Pamela (1740) and Henry Fielding's Tom Jones (1745). After a period of decline, the poetry of Robert Burns revived interest in vernacular literature, the rhyming weavers of Ulster being especially influenced by literature in Scots from Scotland. The following two centuries continued a huge outpouring of literary production. In the early 19th century, the Romantic period showed a flowering of poetry comparable with the Renaissance two hundred years earlier, with such poets as William Blake, William Wordsworth, John Keats, and Lord Byron. The Victorian period was the golden age of the realistic English novel, represented by Jane Austen, the Brontë sisters (Charlotte, Emily and Anne), Charles Dickens, William Thackeray, George Eliot, and Thomas Hardy. World War One gave rise to British war poets and writers such as Wilfred Owen, Siegfried Sassoon, Robert Graves and Rupert Brooke who wrote (often paradoxically), of their expectations of war, and/or their experiences in the trench. The Celtic Revival stimulated new appreciation of traditional Irish literature, however, with the independence of the Irish Free State, Irish literature came to be seen as more clearly separate from the strains of British literature. The Scottish Renaissance of the early 20th century brought modernism to Scottish literature as well as an interest in new forms in the literatures of Scottish Gaelic and Scots. The English novel developed in the 20th century into much greater variety and was greatly enriched by immigrant writers. It remains today the dominant English literary form. Other well-known novelists include Arthur Conan Doyle, D. H. Lawrence, George Orwell, Salman Rushdie, Mary Shelley, Zadie Smith, J. R. R. Tolkien, Virginia Woolf and . Rowling. Important poets include Elizabeth Barrett Browning, T. S. Eliot, Ted Hughes, John Milton, Alfred Tennyson, Rudyard Kipling, Alexander Pope, and Dylan Thomas. Religion Main article: Religion in the United Kingdom Although today one of the most 'secularised' states in the world, the United Kingdom is traditionally a Christian country, with two of the Home nations having official faiths: Anglicanism, in the form of the Church of England, is the Established Church in England. The Queen is Supreme Governor of the Church of England. Presbyterianism (Church of Scotland) is the official faith in Scotland. The Anglican Church in Wales was disestablished in 1920. The Anglican Church of Ireland was disestablished in 1871. Other religions followed in the UK include Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, Judaism, and Buddhism. While 2001 census information [2] suggests that over 75 percent of UK citizens consider themselves to belong to a religion, Gallup International reports that only 10 percent of UK citizens regularly attend religious services, compared to 15 percent of French citizens and 57 percent of American citizens. A 2004 YouGov poll found that 44 percent of UK citizens believe in God, while 35 percent do not [3]. The disparity between the census data and the YouGov data has been put down to a phenomenon described as "cultural Christianity", whereby many who do not believe in God still identify with the religion they were bought up as, or the religion of their parents. [edit] Food Main article: British cuisine Although there is ample evidence of a rich and varied approach to cuisine during earlier historical periods (particularly so amongst wealthy citizens), during much of the 19th and 20th century Britain had a reputation for somewhat conservative cuisine. The stereotype of the native cuisine was of a diet progressing little beyond stodgy meals consisting of "meat and two veg". Even today, in more conservative areas of the country, "meat and two veg" cuisine is still the favoured choice at the dinner table. Traditional British fare usually includes dishes such as fish and chips, roast dishes of beef, lamb, chicken and pork, as well as regional dishes such as the Cornish pasty and Lancashire Hotpot. On 8 January 1940, four months after the outbreak of World War II, a system of food Rationing was introduced to conserve stocks and feed the nation during the critical war years. Rationing persisted until July 4, 1954 [4] when a fourteen year period of relative privation (which profoundly affected a generation of people attitude to 'a culture of food') finally came to an end. With the end of rationing, Britain's diet began to change, slowly at first during the 1950s and 1960s, but immeasurably by the closing decades of the 20th century. During the transitional period of the 1970s, a number of influential figures such as Delia Smith (perhaps Britain's most famous homegrown exponent of good food), began the drive to encourage greater experimentation with the new ingredients (. pasta) increasingly being offered by the supermarkets. The evolution of the British diet was further accelerated with the increasing tendency of the British to travel to continental Europe (and sometimes beyond) for their annual holidays, experiencing new and unfamiliar dishes as they travelled to countries such as France, Italy, and Spain. Towards the mid to late 1990s and onwards an explosion of talented new 'TV chefs' began to come to prominence, (with figures as diverse as Jamie Oliver, Ainsley Harriott, Ken Hom, Nigella Lawson, Madhur Jaffrey, Nigel Slater, and Keith Floyd) this brought about a noticeable acceleration in the diversity of cuisine the general public were prepared to try and their general confidence in preparing food that had would once have been considered pure staples of foreign cultures, particularly the Mediterranean European, South and East Asian diets. As a result, a new style of cooking called Modern British emerged. This process of increased variety and experimentation in food inevitably dovetailed with the very profound impact that the post-war influx of immigrants to the UK (many from Britain's former colonies in the Caribbean and Indian sub-continent) had on the national cuisine. The new communities propelled new and exciting dishes and ingredients onto restaurant tables and into the national consciousness. In many instances, British tastes fused with the new dishes to produce entirely new dishes such as the Balti, an English invention based on Indian cuisine that has since gained popularity across the world. Many of these new dishes have since become deeply embedded in the native culture, culminating in a speech in 2001 by Foreign Secretary, Robin Cook, in which he described Chicken Tikka Masala as 'a true British national dish' [5]. With the rich diversity of its peoples and its (arguably) relatively successful attempts at creating a true multicultural society, married to a reputation as an experimental and forward thinking nation, the future of British cuisine looks positive. [edit] Education University College, Oxford was founded in the 13th centuryMain article: Education in the United Kingdom The education system in the United Kingdom varies in important respects between England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. Education is devolved to the Scottish Parliament and the assemblies in Wales and Northern Ireland. Education is compulsory for all children between the ages of five and sixteen. Most children in the UK are educated in state funded schools financed through the tax system and so parents do not pay directly for the cost of education. Less than ten percent of the UK school age population attend independent fee-paying schools. Many prominent independent schools, often founded hundreds of years ago, are known as public schools of which Eton, Harrow and Rugby are three of the better known. Most primary and secondary schools in both the private and state sectors have compulsory school uniforms. This is a contentious point with generations of school children who would like to see them abolished, only to support their retention once they become parents, this is due to people wanting to have a 'uniform' appearance in schools and it reduces the brand logo culture from coming out in educational establishments. Due to the multicultural nature of England, some allowances have had to be made in the uniform regulations to accommodate the needs of some children's religious beliefs. [edit] England Main article Education in England Most schools came under state control in the Victorian era, a formal state school system was instituted after the Second World War. Initially schools were separated into infant schools (normally up to age 4 or 5), primary schools and secondary schools (split into more academic grammar schools and more vocational secondary modern schools). Under the Labour governments of the 1960s and 1970s most secondary modern and grammar schools were combined to become comprehensive schools. Although the Minister of Education is responsible to Parliament for education, the day to day administration and funding of state schools is the responsibility of Local Education Authorities. Northern Ireland Main article Education in Northern Ireland Scotland Main article Education in Scotland Wales Main article Education in Wales Higher education The United Kingdom includes many historic universities. These include the so-called Oxbridge universities (Oxford University and Cambridge University) which are amongst the world's oldest universities and are generally ranked at or near the top of all British universities. Other universities include the University of St Andrews, the oldest university in Scotland. Academic degrees are usually split into classes: first class (I), upper second class (II:1), lower second class (II:2) and third (III), and unclassified (below third class). [Sport Main article: Sport in the United Kingdom The national sport of the UK is football, and the UK has the oldest football clubs in the world. The home nations all have separate national teams and domestic competitions, most notably the Scottish Premier League, the FA Cup and the FA Premier League. The first ever international football match was between Scotland and England in 1872. The match ended goalless. Other famous British sporting events include the Wimbledon tennis championships, the Grand National, the London Marathon, the ashes series of cricket matches and the boat race between Oxford and Cambridge universities. A great number of major sports originated in the United Kingdom, including: Football (soccer), squash, golf, boxing, rugby (rugby union and rugby league), cricket, snooker, billiards, badminton and curling. National costume The kilt is a traditional Scottish garmentThere is no specifically British national costume. Even individually, England, Wales and Northern Ireland have only vestiges of a national costume; Scotland has the kilt and Tam o'shanter. In England certain military uniforms such as the Beefeater or the Queen's Guard are considered by tourists to be symbolic of Englishness, however they are not official national costumes. Morris dancers or the costumes for the traditional English may dance are cited by some as examples of traditional English costume. Naming convention The naming convention in most of the United Kingdom is for everyone to have a given name, usually (but not always) indicating the child's sex, followed by a parent's family name. This naming convention has remained much the same since the 15th century in England although patronymic naming remained in some of the further reaches of the other home nations until much later. Since the 19th century middle names have become very common and are often taken from the family name of an ancestor. Traditionally given names were largely taken from the Bible however in the Gothic Revival of the Victorian era Anglo Saxon and mythical names became commonplace. Since the middle of the 20th century however given names have been influenced by a much wider cultural base. 英国式足球（Wall game）的英文介绍Wall gameWally (pronounced Wall - ey ) is a groupe of games played predominantly in secondary schools in England. The games are generally played during breaks and require a wall and tennis ball or football. Numbers involved in games range from four to 30-ish; however, numbers become unmanageable beyond to playUsing a tennis ball The game is played against a stretch of wall with a smooth flat surface underneath. The wall should preferably be above two meters (although skilled players never use more than meter). The ball is 'served' by throwing the ball hard at the ground and making it bounce on to the wall; this is normally done from two to three meters away from the wall. Players then have to hit the ball in the cupped palm of their hand towards the wall ensuring that it bounces on the ground before it hits the wall. A player is out if they fail to hit the ball, fail to make the ball bounce before hitting the wall, or miss the wall. The winner is the last person left tennis raquet can be used instead of handsUsing a football The rules are the same although the ball is kicked rather than hit with the handDetailed RulesThe length of wall is changeable depending on the number of players but generally stays under eight meters. Players can call for a re-serve if they feel there was a bad serve; this can only be done before the ball is hit. The person who is nearest to the ball is the one that has to hit it. Failure to do so results in them being out. Players can step out of the way of the ball if there is someone behind them, thus making the person behind them responsible for hitting the ball. If two players begin to claim the other person was nearer to the ball then both players are out. The ball is sometimes aimed at other players because they are out if the ball hits them. If the ball hits the joining of the wall and floor (a '50/50') players can call for the round to start again. Playing StyleThe game is played differently to the way the rules would suggest. The playing style is fast and furious and when well-played the ball is hit very hard and low to the ground three or four meters away from the wall. Playing occasionally changes to the ball being hit very softy close to the wall requiring players to be very close to the wall; this is generally used tactically as players can then hit the ball hard so that it shoots off almost parallel to the wall catching out people who had not been playing close to the wall. This tactic generally only last a round or part of one as it is considered are a few variations of the game although they are played with less frequency than the main game. 'Stings' is played exactly the same as the normal game except at the end of a game the first person has to stand against the wall while the winner gets one shoot against them with the ball. '3D' wally is generally played in corridors or classrooms, in this variant of the game 2 or 3 walls are used as well as the roof.

足球运动是一项古老的体育活动，源远流长。据说，希腊人和罗马人在中世纪以前就已经从事一种足球游戏了。他们在一个长方形场地上，将球放在中间的白线上，用脚把球踢滚到对方场地上，当时称这种游戏为“哈巴斯托姆”。 到19世纪初叶，足球运动在当时欧洲及拉美一些国家特别是在资本主义的英国已经相当盛行。直到1848年，足球运动的第一个文字形式的规则《剑桥规则》诞生了。 然而众多的资料表明，中国古代足球的出现比欧洲更早，历史更为悠久。我国古代足球称为“蹴鞠”或“蹋鞠”，“蹴”和“蹋”都是踢的意思,“鞠”是球名。“蹴鞠”一词最早记载在《史记·苏秦列传》里，汉代刘向《别录》和唐人颜师曾为《汉书.枚乘传》均有记载。到了唐宋时期，“蹴鞠”活动已十分盛行，成为宫廷之中的高雅活动。 1958年7月，国际足联现任主席阿维兰热博士来中国时曾表示：足球起源于中国。当然，由于封建社会的局限，中国古代的蹴鞠活动最终没有发展成为以“公平竞争”为原则的现代足球运动。这个质的飞跃是在资本主义的英国完成的。 现代足球运动的诞生 从17世纪中后期开始，足球运动逐步从欧美传入世界各国，尤其是在一些文化发达的国家更为盛行。越来越多的人走向球场，投身到这一富有刺激性和畅快感的运动中去，以至于一度将足球运动开展得好坏作为衡量一个国家文化发达与否的标志。在这种情况下，英国人率先为足球运动的发展作出了重要贡献。 1863年10月26日，英国人在伦敦皇后大街弗里马森旅馆成立了世界第一个足球协会——英格兰足球协会。会上除了宣布英格兰足协正式成立之外，制定和通过了世界第一部较为统一的足球竞赛规则，并以文字形式记载下来。英格兰足球协会的诞生，标志着足球运动的发展进入了一个崭新的阶段因而,人们公认1863 年10月26日，即英格兰足球协会成立之日为现代足球的诞生日。 第一届FIFA世界杯，足球传奇的开始 尽管国际足联在1904年便宣告正式成立，但在此后的20年间还没有进行过任何一项国际性的足球比赛 。 1924年在巴黎举行的奥林匹克运动会上，足球终于成为正式比赛项目。这是一次空前的足球盛会，来自各大洲的球队齐聚巴黎，争夺代表最高荣誉的金牌。比赛无疑是成功的，超过50,000名热情的观众观看了最后的决赛，乌拉圭击败瑞士队获得了冠军。但是到了1928年，许多国家都拒绝参加在阿姆斯特丹举行的奥运会。很显然，随着职业足球的不断发展，现在是时候成立一项独立的国际足球赛事了。 1928年5月26日，国际足联代表大会在阿姆斯特丹召开。会上经过投票通过了于1930年举办一项新赛事的决议，该赛事将对国际足联下属的所有成员国开放。1929年5月18日，在巴塞罗那召开的会议上，乌拉圭被投票选举为首届FIFA世界杯赛的主办国。