Published in 1847, WUTHERING HEIGHTS was not well received by the reading public, many of whom condemned it as sordid, vulgar, and unnatural--and author Emily Bronte went to her grave in 1848 believing that her only novel was a It was not until 1850, when WUTHERING HEIGHTS received a second printing with an introduction by Emily's sister Charlotte, that it attracted a wide And from that point the reputation of the book has never looked Today it is widely recognized as one of the great novels of English Even so, WUTHERING HEIGHTS continues to divide It is not a pretty love story; rather, it is swirling tale of largely unlikeable people caught up in obsessive love that turns to dark It is cruel, violent, dark and brooding, and many people find it extremely And yet--it possesses a grandeur of language and design, a sense of tremendous pity and great loss that sets it apart from virtually every other novel The novel is told in the form of an extended After a visit to his strange landlord, a newcomer to the area desires to know the history of the family--which he receives from Nelly Deans, a servant who introduces us to the Earnshaw family who once resided in the house known as Wuthering H It was once a cheerful place, but Old Earnshaw adopted a "Gipsy" child who he named H And Catherine, daughter of the house, found in him the perfect companion: wild, rude, and as proud and cruel as But although Catherine loves him, even recognizes him as her soulmate, she cannot lower herself to marry so far below her social She instead marries another, and in so doing sets in motion an obsession that will destroy them WUTHERING HEIGHTS is a bit difficult to "get into;" the opening chapters are so dark in their portrait of the end result of this obsessive love that they are somewhat off- But they feed into the flow of the work in a remarkable way, setting the stage for one of the most remarkable structures in all of literature, a story that circles upon itself in a series of repetitions as it plays out across two Catherine and Heathcliff are equally remarkable, both vicious and cruel, and yet never able to shed their impossible love no matter how brutally one may wound the As the novel coils further into alcoholism, seduction, and one of the most elaborately imagined plans of revenge it gathers into a ghostly tone: Heathcliff, driven to madness by a woman who is not there but who seems reflected in every part of his world--dragging her corpse from the grave, hearing her calling to him from the moors, escalating his brutality not for the sake of brutality but so that her memory will never fade, so that she may never leave his mind until death Yes, this is madness, insanity, and there is no peace this side of the grave or even Many people in the world are trying to find a perfect Some of these may marry and not know what their new husband or wife is This kind of situation often leads to separation or Other situations may develop between two friends that stem from jealousy, desire for revenge, uncaring parents, Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights displays several characteristics of destructive Three of these are uncaring parents, marriage without knowing the person, and Uncaring or unsympathizing parents are shown throughout this story to be an element of destructive Because Heathcliff gained all the attention from M Earnshaw, Hindley became disassociated from his This separation continued until after M Earnshaw had Another example is between Hindley and H Hindley became such a drunk and a gambler that he could not properly care for young H This led to a separation between Hareton and his father as One primary example of an uncaring parent is shown between Heathcliff and his son LHeathcliff did not even want his son for anything except enacting a part of his This is shown by Linton's fear of Heathcliff and Heathcliff's enmity toward his Linton even says " my father threatened me, and I dread him - I dread him!"(244) to express his feeling about HThe hostility and separation between father and son in this book shows that uncaring parents can cause serious damage in relationships with their This element of destructive behavior may stem from an unhappy marriage in which the husbands or wives don't know each This had happened between Isabella and H Isabella did not really know Heathcliff when she married him, but after she had married him she saw that Heathcliff was not a gentleman at To declare her feelings she wrote "Is Heathcliff a man? If so, is he mad? And if not, is he a devil? I shan't tell my reasons for making this inquiry; but I beseech you to explain, if you can, what I have married "(125) Another example of this is when Catherine married Edgar L Although she had been happy at the beginning of the marriage, she thought having parties all the time was going to be Yet, after a while, she became She also realized that she loved Heathcliff more than Edgar and would always love HThis enlightenment created separation between Edgar and Catherine during the final hours of Cathy's An additional marriage which was made that was doomed was the one between Catherine and L Because this was a forced marriage, Cathy had not yet learned all she could about LBecause she did not know until after the marriage that Linton was selfish and inconsiderate, she became distressed and grew isolated in the These three failed marriages described in this novel show that knowing the person you will marry is very While these marriages took place, jealousy also took a hold in some One example of this is when M Earnshaw starts to favor Heathcliff over his own son, H Because of this, Hindley becomes jealous of young Heathcliff and sets out to make Heathcliff's life a Hindley's jealousy becomes evident when he says ," be damned you beggarly interloper! and wheedle my father out of all he has; only afterwards show him what you are, imp of S"(35) Jealousy was also found very notably in the relationship between Heathcliff and Edgar L The jealousy between them is expressed when Heathcliff and Edgar start a hostile conversation after Cathy's homecoming at Christmas near the beginning of the As the story progresses these two become bitter enemies who will not speak to one Another relationship which jealousy ruined is the one between Hareton and L These two become jealous of each other over Cathy's This relationship ends as Hareton and Linton hating each These relationships show that jealousy can ruin a relationship very The housekeeper Ellen Dean, or we can call her Nelly, tells most of the She witnesses the life of the three-generations in the two She is a good storyteller but we mustn’t believe all of what she She always thinks and considers things in a simple She couldn’t understand the deep love between Catherine and H She thinks it is a kind of She is a limited In a certain way, this helps readers to understand Heathcliff better because he has no chance to defend An outsider will see the whole thing more However, we should pay more attention not to be affect by her opinions and try to find the truth between the As a main character Catherine is a She is attracted by Linton but doesn’t love She knows that clearly but she marries Linton without listening to the call of her Many critics believe that what makes her marry Linton is only his high social status and I think this comment is In fact, she folly thinks to marry Linton will help Heathcliff “to rise and place him out of my brother’s ” Her decision ruins herself, Heathcliff and the two She has to endure serious suffering because she knows clearly she love Heathcliff whole-heartedly but can’t become his She confesses to Nelly her own thoughts: “…I am Heathcliff—he’s always, always in my mind—not as a pleasure, any more than I am always a pleasure to myself—but as my own being…” She loves Heathcliff because he is more like her than His existence is natural to her for they are the same in They could understand each other without Talking about Heathcliff, he is an evil person but I admire him because his love and hate is Everyone has a devil in his The one in Heathcliff’s heart is especially In spite of this, I believe and can read between the lines that Amily Bronte also has her favor to H She wants to tell us evil and love are deeply planted in everyone’s heart and it is human
不同学校要求不一样哦。专业不一样，要求也不一样哦。这个问题，你直接问你的指导老师吧。
呵呵，说真的，这要看学校要求啦！因为学校的有不同的等级之分，所以国家对学校所培养的学生毕业论文的要求也是不一样的！一般来说地方院校的外语系论文是3000字左右，省一级的学校的话要求大概是4000到5000左右，而且论文的要求是大不一样的！所以建议你最好咨询一下系里或学校！
一般是足够的。要看学校要求，因为学校的有不同的等级之分，所以国家对学校所培养的学生毕业论文的要求也是不一样的。一般来说地方院校的外语系论文是3000字左右，省一级的学校的话要求大概是4000到5000左右，而且论文的要求是大不一样的。所以建议你最好咨询一下系里或学校。
Published in 1847, WUTHERING HEIGHTS was not well received by the reading public, many of whom condemned it as sordid, vulgar, and unnatural--and author Emily Bronte went to her grave in 1848 believing that her only novel was a It was not until 1850, when WUTHERING HEIGHTS received a second printing with an introduction by Emily's sister Charlotte, that it attracted a wide And from that point the reputation of the book has never looked Today it is widely recognized as one of the great novels of English Even so, WUTHERING HEIGHTS continues to divide It is not a pretty love story; rather, it is swirling tale of largely unlikeable people caught up in obsessive love that turns to dark It is cruel, violent, dark and brooding, and many people find it extremely And yet--it possesses a grandeur of language and design, a sense of tremendous pity and great loss that sets it apart from virtually every other novel The novel is told in the form of an extended After a visit to his strange landlord, a newcomer to the area desires to know the history of the family--which he receives from Nelly Deans, a servant who introduces us to the Earnshaw family who once resided in the house known as Wuthering H It was once a cheerful place, but Old Earnshaw adopted a "Gipsy" child who he named H And Catherine, daughter of the house, found in him the perfect companion: wild, rude, and as proud and cruel as But although Catherine loves him, even recognizes him as her soulmate, she cannot lower herself to marry so far below her social She instead marries another, and in so doing sets in motion an obsession that will destroy them WUTHERING HEIGHTS is a bit difficult to "get into;" the opening chapters are so dark in their portrait of the end result of this obsessive love that they are somewhat off- But they feed into the flow of the work in a remarkable way, setting the stage for one of the most remarkable structures in all of literature, a story that circles upon itself in a series of repetitions as it plays out across two Catherine and Heathcliff are equally remarkable, both vicious and cruel, and yet never able to shed their impossible love no matter how brutally one may wound the As the novel coils further into alcoholism, seduction, and one of the most elaborately imagined plans of revenge it gathers into a ghostly tone: Heathcliff, driven to madness by a woman who is not there but who seems reflected in every part of his world--dragging her corpse from the grave, hearing her calling to him from the moors, escalating his brutality not for the sake of brutality but so that her memory will never fade, so that she may never leave his mind until death Yes, this is madness, insanity, and there is no peace this side of the grave or even Many people in the world are trying to find a perfect Some of these may marry and not know what their new husband or wife is This kind of situation often leads to separation or Other situations may develop between two friends that stem from jealousy, desire for revenge, uncaring parents, Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights displays several characteristics of destructive Three of these are uncaring parents, marriage without knowing the person, and Uncaring or unsympathizing parents are shown throughout this story to be an element of destructive Because Heathcliff gained all the attention from M Earnshaw, Hindley became disassociated from his This separation continued until after M Earnshaw had Another example is between Hindley and H Hindley became such a drunk and a gambler that he could not properly care for young H This led to a separation between Hareton and his father as One primary example of an uncaring parent is shown between Heathcliff and his son LHeathcliff did not even want his son for anything except enacting a part of his This is shown by Linton's fear of Heathcliff and Heathcliff's enmity toward his Linton even says " my father threatened me, and I dread him - I dread him!"(244) to express his feeling about HThe hostility and separation between father and son in this book shows that uncaring parents can cause serious damage in relationships with their This element of destructive behavior may stem from an unhappy marriage in which the husbands or wives don't know each This had happened between Isabella and H Isabella did not really know Heathcliff when she married him, but after she had married him she saw that Heathcliff was not a gentleman at To declare her feelings she wrote "Is Heathcliff a man? If so, is he mad? And if not, is he a devil? I shan't tell my reasons for making this inquiry; but I beseech you to explain, if you can, what I have married "(125) Another example of this is when Catherine married Edgar L Although she had been happy at the beginning of the marriage, she thought having parties all the time was going to be Yet, after a while, she became She also realized that she loved Heathcliff more than Edgar and would always love HThis enlightenment created separation between Edgar and Catherine during the final hours of Cathy's An additional marriage which was made that was doomed was the one between Catherine and L Because this was a forced marriage, Cathy had not yet learned all she could about LBecause she did not know until after the marriage that Linton was selfish and inconsiderate, she became distressed and grew isolated in the These three failed marriages described in this novel show that knowing the person you will marry is very While these marriages took place, jealousy also took a hold in some One example of this is when M Earnshaw starts to favor Heathcliff over his own son, H Because of this, Hindley becomes jealous of young Heathcliff and sets out to make Heathcliff's life a Hindley's jealousy becomes evident when he says ," be damned you beggarly interloper! and wheedle my father out of all he has; only afterwards show him what you are, imp of S"(35) Jealousy was also found very notably in the relationship between Heathcliff and Edgar L The jealousy between them is expressed when Heathcliff and Edgar start a hostile conversation after Cathy's homecoming at Christmas near the beginning of the As the story progresses these two become bitter enemies who will not speak to one Another relationship which jealousy ruined is the one between Hareton and L These two become jealous of each other over Cathy's This relationship ends as Hareton and Linton hating each These relationships show that jealousy can ruin a relationship very The housekeeper Ellen Dean, or we can call her Nelly, tells most of the She witnesses the life of the three-generations in the two She is a good storyteller but we mustn’t believe all of what she She always thinks and considers things in a simple She couldn’t understand the deep love between Catherine and H She thinks it is a kind of She is a limited In a certain way, this helps readers to understand Heathcliff better because he has no chance to defend An outsider will see the whole thing more However, we should pay more attention not to be affect by her opinions and try to find the truth between the As a main character Catherine is a She is attracted by Linton but doesn’t love She knows that clearly but she marries Linton without listening to the call of her Many critics believe that what makes her marry Linton is only his high social status and I think this comment is In fact, she folly thinks to marry Linton will help Heathcliff “to rise and place him out of my brother’s ” Her decision ruins herself, Heathcliff and the two She has to endure serious suffering because she knows clearly she love Heathcliff whole-heartedly but can’t become his She confesses to Nelly her own thoughts: “…I am Heathcliff—he’s always, always in my mind—not as a pleasure, any more than I am always a pleasure to myself—but as my own being…” She loves Heathcliff because he is more like her than His existence is natural to her for they are the same in They could understand each other without Talking about Heathcliff, he is an evil person but I admire him because his love and hate is Everyone has a devil in his The one in Heathcliff’s heart is especially In spite of this, I believe and can read between the lines that Amily Bronte also has her favor to H She wants to tell us evil and love are deeply planted in everyone’s heart and it is human
1、题目：题目应简洁、明确、有概括性，字数不宜超过20个字（不同院校可能要求不同）。本专科毕业论文一般无需单独的题目页，硕博士毕业论文一般需要单独的题目页，展示院校、指导教师、答辩时间等信息。英文部分一般需要使用Times NewRoman字体。2、版权声明：一般而言，硕士与博士研究生毕业论文内均需在正文前附版权声明，独立成页。个别本科毕业论文也有此项。3、摘要：要有高度的概括力，语言精练、明确，中文摘要约100—200字（不同院校可能要求不同）。4、关键词：从论文标题或正文中挑选3～5个（不同院校可能要求不同）最能表达主要内容的词作为关键词。关键词之间需要用分号或逗号分开。5、目录：写出目录，标明页码。正文各一级二级标题（根据实际情况，也可以标注更低级标题）、参考文献、附录、致谢等。6、正文：专科毕业论文正文字数一般应在3000字以上，本科文学学士毕业论文通常要求8000字以上，硕士论文可能要求在3万字以上（不同院校可能要求不同）。毕业论文正文：包括前言、本论、结论三个部分。前言（引言）是论文的开头部分，主要说明论文写作的目的、现实意义、对所研究问题的认识，并提出论文的中心论点等。前言要写得简明扼要，篇幅不要太长。本论是毕业论文的主体，包括研究内容与方法、实验材料、实验结果与分析（讨论）等。在本部分要运用各方面的研究方法和实验结果，分析问题，论证观点，尽量反映出自己的科研能力和学术水平。结论是毕业论文的收尾部分，是围绕本论所作的结束语。其基本的要点就是总结全文，加深题意。7、致谢：简述自己通过做毕业论文的体会，并应对指导教师和协助完成论文的有关人员表示谢意。8、参考文献：在毕业论文末尾要列出在论文中参考过的所有专著、论文及其他资料，所列参考文献可以按文中参考或引证的先后顺序排列，也可以按照音序排列（正文中则采用相应的哈佛式参考文献标注而不出现序号）。9、注释：在论文写作过程中，有些问题需要在正文之外加以阐述和说明。10、附录：对于一些不宜放在正文中，但有参考价值的内容，可编入附录中。有时也常将个人简介附于文后。
从最基本的说起，其实和语文的议论文一样， 有introduction,body and conclusion。 Introduction- topic, point of view(optional),a breif introduction that the student will mention in the following paragraph (1st para of body) Body- a thesis statement + supportive examples + a summary of the thesis(optional) NB: one thesis (idea)/ Conclusion- rearrangement of REMEMBER students have no idea! That's the whole idea of academic Thus there is a very IMPORTANT tip you need to tell your students- REFERENCES References need to appear in introduction,body and conclusion of the whole Academic writings are usually expositive, hence you need tell your students to use passive Active words are ONLY used in Creative Writing
In 2002 will be implemented in three 10 X college entrance examination College entrance examination system in the reform of English teaching The key lies in establishing the class-based teaching system (1) listening and Against the status quo of poor listening and speaking ability of students to open every Monday of English listening and speaking Use the latest teaching listening "to the future", "traveled the United States," "expect English," and other tapes, video tapes and newspapers, using advanced listening equipment in the classroom teaching through listening, speaking, dialogue, performances, lectures and other lively, interesting students heard about the form of training to improve the communication skills of students, training students in the level of oral expression, reversing the pre-existing "dumb-style" English teaching status (2) the addition of extensive reading classes, the establishment of Foreign Language Reading R Although the new textbooks to read the current increased, but far from what is In order to expand the scope of the students exposure to English, optional printing a variety of genres, subjects suitable for students to read the According to the requirements of content and reading test, teachers will be articles to classify each article in the post-coupled with an appropriate amount of reading comprehension In order to broaden the teaching of English extension, so that extensive reading in English from the curricular and extra-curricular extension to the establishment of foreign language reading acquisition have been published in a variety of domestic suitable for high school students to read English books, will be in English Extensive Reading from the classroom extended to Yuelan Shi to further stimulate students interest in reading and Subscribe for students in English newspapers and magazines, the establishment of English specialty health system, at any time to give them an open reading rooms and study Teaching through extensive reading, students can not only consolidate the textbooks and the basics, but also can improve the self-learning ability to develop intelligence, reading to be (3) The creation of writing Poor writing skills for students in English and Chinese-style English sentences in the written expression of uncommon situation, the school can fully use my existing computer software, according to the new textbooks written request, step by step training on the students "English written expression and training", will be Practical, descriptive text, description text and carry out the purpose of discussion, sub-level guidance Writing Course opened for the entrance examination is not merely to prepare for the written expression, but also enable students to learn a variety of English style of writing methods and techniques to meet the future requirements of the community of foreign language (4) The implementation of the different levels of English teaching, the successful introduction of English classes and increase Students according to their actual English proficiency, the free selection of the successful lessons to enhance our School teachers to take a The basis of less successful lessons where students can make up for deficiencies in knowledge and a good grasp of double-base implementation, to develop their own non-intellectual factors, promote the improvement of performance and enjoy the joy of The basis of good students can participate in improving the high level of English classes comprehensive training to promote their own standard of English to the "high, precision and advanced the" development and outline the task ahead of schedule to prepare for the 2002年全国将实施3十X高考制度。高考制度在改革，英语教学改革势在必行。 关键在于建立各课型教学体系 （1）听说课。针对学生听说能力差的现状，开设每周一节次的英语听说课。选用最新听力教材“走向未来”，“走遍美国”，“希望英语”等录音带，录像带及报纸，利用先进的听音设备，在课堂教学中通过听，说，对话，表演，演讲等各种生动，有趣的形式对学生进行听说训练，提高学生的交际能力，训练学生的口语表达水平，扭转以前存在的“哑巴式”英语教学的现状。 （2）增设泛读课，建立外文阅览室。现行新教材尽管阅读量增加，但远远不能满足需要。为了扩大学生对英语的接触范围，可选印各种体裁，题材适于学生阅读的文章。根据内容和阅读测试的要求，教师将文章进行分类，在每篇文章后配以适量的阅读理解题。为了拓宽英语课堂教学的外延，使英语泛读由课内延伸到课外，建立外文阅览室，购置国内现已出版发行的各种适合中学生阅读的英语读物，将英语泛读由教室扩展到阅览室，进一步激发学生的阅读兴趣和主动性。为学生订阅英文报刊和杂志，建立英语特长生制度，随时给他们开放阅览室和自修室。通过泛读课教学，学生不仅能巩固课本中出现的基础知识，而且能提高自学能力，开发智力，从阅读中得到乐趣。 （3）开设写作课。针对学生英文写作能力差，中国式英语句子在书面表达屡见不鲜的状况，可充分利用我校现有的电脑软件，根据新教材写作要求，循序渐进地对学生进行写作训练。 “英语书面表达与训练”，将应用文，描写文，说明文和论述进行有目的，分层次的指导训练。开设写作课不仅仅是单纯为高考的书面表达做准备，也是让学生学会各种英语文体的写作方法与技巧，适应未来社会对外语人才的要求。 （4）实施英语分层次教学，开设英语成功课与提高课。学生可以根据自己的实际英语水平，自由挑选上成功课还是提高课。教师采取挂牌上课。基础较差的学生可以在成功课里弥补知识的缺陷，抓好双基落实，开发自己的非智力因素，促进成绩的提高，享受成功的喜悦。基础较好的学生可以参加提高班的较高水平的英语综合训练，促使自己的英语水平向“高，精，尖”发展，提前完成大纲任务并为竞赛作好准备。
Information literacy Knowing how to find data from several sources, select relevant material, analyse and organise it into a form that can be used to make Computers have become the tools people use to access and manage Information technologists are people who analyse and design the What is a computer? Tradition definitions of computers include �6�1 A machine that accepts data and processes it into use �6�1 A computer is a binary, digital, electronic, stored program �6�1 While a computer is commonly a digital machine, analogue machine do An electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory unit, that can accept data (input), process data arithmetically and logically, produce results (output) from the processing and stores results for future Many computers receive and send data (communicate) across networks LAN and W A computer system consists of hardware and What is hardware? Hardware Hardware is physical devices or components that can be physically handled – you can thou Input Devices Input devices convert data that humans collect into coded electrical signals that a computer can The central processing unit The electronic processing takes place in the CPU The CPU consists of �6�1 A control unit that controls all of the computer’s functions and an �6�1 Arithmetic and logical unit (ALU) that performs any calculation Memory Memory holds all programs and What is RAM currently open? Data (notes) Word processor OS Output devices Output devices convert the computer’s electronic signals back into information Secondary storage devices These devices store programs and data The programs and data are not necessarily (or likely to be) in current E DVD CD Communication devices These devices enable a computer to connect to another List the six different type of hardware? Secondary storage(external), input, processor, output , memory, C Name eight pieces of hardware USB, keyboard, monitor, screen, RAM, ROM, VDU, M The system unit and peripheral devices The system unit is the computer Peripheral devices are any devices around the outside, or in other words, plugged into the (back of) the Peripheral devices include the key board, mouse, printer, joy stick and Peripheral devices are any devices around the outside, or in other words, plugged into the (back of) the Peripheral devices include the keyboard, mouse, printer, joy stick and What else does a computer have? Software Software is a computer program ,which is a detailed set of instructions that directs a computer to perform the tasks necessary to process data into These instructions are written in languages that computer can Software includes computer games, a word processing packing, an accounting package, amongst Definition of a computer system �6�1 A computer system is the configuration of hardware and software, functioning together, to process data into useful information, in order to achieve a purpose for a human What is data? �6�1 Data is raw facts, be they numbers, words, images and sounds, that can be input into a Mary a name is a piece of data What is information? �6�1 Information is processed data, that has meaning and is John is a list of names who scored an A grade on an exam John A Chai A Pam A Commodore $23 500 Magna $21 500 Falcon $19 800 The system unit contains the �6�1 Motherboard �6�1 CPU �6�1 Memory �6�1 Other electronics It is where the computer program instructions are executed and the data is manipulatedThe Processor CPU The CPU interprets and carries out basic instructions that operate the computer, the CPU contain the �6�1 Control unit and the �6�1 Arithmetic logic unit Control unit The control unit directs and coordinates the computer’s For every single instruction, the control unit repeats four basic operations, �6�1 Fetching �6�1 Decoding �6�1 Executing �6�1 Storing CPU speed The CPU’s speed may be measured in MIPS The number of millions of instructions per second Arithmetic/logic unit The ALU performs all calculations, which involve �6�1 Arithmetic operations 2+3 �6�1 Comparison operations age>=17 �6�1 Logical operations pass Processing instructions A CPU may begin executing a second machine cycle before completing the first-referred to as Current CPU’s can pipeline up to 4 Storage within the CPU Registers temporarily hold data and The computer’s clock A System clock is necessary to control the timing of all computer Each tick of the clock is referred to as a clock Clock speed is the speed at which a processor executes A hertz is one cycle per second and a megahertz is 1024 by1024 and a gigahertz is 1024 by 1024 Memory Memory is the temporary storage place for data and (program) Memory is measured in �6�1 Kilobytes 1024 bytes 2^10 �6�1 Megabytes 1024* 1024 bytes 2^20 �6�1 Gigabytes 1024*1024*1024 bytes 2^30 Representation of data Digital computers are built from many small electronic Each circuit, at any point of time can be turned OFF or ON Hence these devices are called two state Binary Digit 0and 1 Each off or on digital value is called a bit, short for binary A 1 bit computer would be able to distinguish between two values-characters, symbols or Hardly sufficient for the characters on the keyboard Bits Characters 1 2 2 4 3 8 4 16 5 32 6 64 7 128 8 256
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A standard form contract (sometimes referred to as an adhesion contract or boilerplate contract) is a contract between two parties that does not allow for negotiation, take it or leave It is often a contract that is entered into between unequal bargaining partners, such as when an individual is given a contract by the salesperson of a multinational The customer in no position to negotiate the standard terms of such contracts and the company's representative often does not have the autonomy to do While adhesion contracts, in and of themselves, are not illegal per se, there exists a very real possibility for There is some debate on a theoretical level whether, and to what extent, courts should enforce standard form On one hand, they undeniably fulfill an important efficiency role in Standard form contracting reduces transaction costs substantially by precluding the need for buyers and sellers of goods and services to negotiate the many details of a sale contract each time the product is On the other hand, there is the potential for inefficient, and even unjust, terms to be accepted by those signing these Such terms might be seen as unjust if they allow the seller to avoid all liability or unilaterally modify terms or terminate the These terms often come in the form of, but are not limited to, forum selection clauses and mandatory arbitration clauses, which can limit or foreclose a party's access to the courts; and also liquidated damages clauses, which set a limit to the amount that can be recovered or require a party to pay a specific They might be inefficient if they place the risk of a negative outcome, such as defective manufacturing, on the buyer who is not in the best position to take There are a number of reasons why such terms might be acceptedStandard form contracts are rarely readLengthy boilerplate terms are often in fine print and written in complicated legal language which often seems The prospect of a buyer finding any useful information from reading such terms is correspondingly Even if such information is discovered, the consumer is in no position to bargain as the contract is presented on a “take it or leave it” Coupled with the often large amount of time needed to read the terms, the expected payoff from reading the contract is low and few people would be expected to read Sometimes a standard form contract may literally be dispensed from a vending machine to drivers sitting in line to enter a parking garage, which means that stopping to read the contract risks provoking road Access to the full terms may be difficult or impossible before acceptanceOften the document being signed is not the full contract; the purchaser is told that the rest of the terms are in another This reduces the likelihood of the terms being read and in some situations, such as software license agreements, can only be read after they have been notionally accepted by purchasing the good and opening the These contracts are typically not enforced, since common law dictates that all terms of a contract must be disclosed before the contract is Boilerplate terms are not salientThe most important terms to purchasers of a good are generally the price and the quality, which are generally understood before the contract of adhesion is Terms relating to events which have very small probabilities of occurring or which refer to particular statutes or legal rules do not seem important to the This further lowers the chance of such terms being read and also means they are likely to be ignored even if they are There may be social pressure to signStandard form contracts are signed at a point when the main details of the transaction have either been negotiated or Social pressure to conclude the bargain at that point may come from a number of The salesperson may imply that the purchaser is being unreasonable if they read or question the terms, saying that they are "just something the lawyers want us to do" or that they are wasting their time reading If the purchaser is at the front of a queue (for example at an airport car rental desk) there is additional pressure to sign Finally, if there has been negotiation over price or particular details, then concessions given by the salesperson may be seen as a gift which socially obliges the purchaser to respond by being co-operative and concluding the Standard form contracts may exploit unequal power relationsIf the good which is being sold using a contract of adhesion is one which is essential or very important for the purchaser to buy (such as a rental property or a needed medical item) then the purchaser might feel they have no choice but to accept the This problem may be mitigated if there are many suppliers of the good who can potentially offer different terms (see below)Some contend that in a competitive market, consumers have the ability to shop around for the supplier who offers them the most favorable terms and are consequently able to avoid However, in the case of credit card contracts, for example, the consumer while having the ability to shop around may still have access to only form contracts with like terms and no opportunity for Also, as noted, many people do not read or understand the terms so there might be very little incentive for a firm to offer favorable conditions as they would gain only a small amount of business from doing Even if this is the case, it is argued by some that only a small percentage of buyers need to actively read standard form contracts for it to be worthwhile for firms to offer better terms if that group is able to influence a larger number of people by affecting the firm’s Another factor which might mitigate the effects of competition on the content of contracts of adhesion is that, in practice, standard form contracts are usually drafted by lawyers instructed to construct them so as to minimize the firm’s liability, not necessarily to implement managers' competitive Sometimes the contracts are written by an industry body and distributed to firms in that industry, increasing homogeneity of the contracts and reducing consumer's ability to shop Common law statusAs a general rule, the common law treats standard form contracts as any other Signature or some other objective manifestation of intent to be legally bound will bind the signor to the contract whether or not they read or understood the The reality of standard form contracting, however, means that many common law jurisdictions have developed special rules with respect to In general, courts will interpret standard form contracts contra proferentem (literally 'against the proffering person') but specific treatment varies between Contracts of adhesionContract of adhesion on timekeeping ticket dispensed by vending machine at parking lot entranceThe concept of the contract of adhesion originated in French civil law, but for example, it did not enter American jurisprudence until the Harvard Law Review published an influential article by Edwin W Patterson in It was subsequently adopted by the majority of American courts, especially after the Supreme Court of California endorsed adhesion analysis in For a contract to be treated as a contract of adhesion, it must be presented on a standard form on a ‘take it or leave it’ basis, and give one party no ability to negotiate because of their unequal bargaining The special scrutiny given to contracts of adhesion can be performed in a number of ways:If the term was outside of the reasonable expectations of the person who did not write the contract, and if the parties were contracting on an unequal basis, then it will not be The reasonable expectation is assessed objectively, looking at the prominence of the term, the purpose of the term and the circumstances surrounding acceptance of the Section 211 of the American Law Institute's Restatement (Second) of Contracts, which has persuasive though non-binding force in courts, provides:Where the other party has reason to believe that the party manifesting such assent would not do so if he knew that the writing contained a particular term, the term is not part of the This is a subjective test focusing on the mind of the seller and has been adopted by only a few state The doctrine of unconscionability is a fact-specific doctrine arising from equitable Unconscionability in standard form contracts usually arises where there is an "absence of meaningful choice on the part of one party due to one-sided contract provisions, together with terms which are so oppressive that no reasonable person would make them and no fair and honest person would accept "
A Dynamic Approach to Accounts Receivable: a Study of Spanish SMEsPedro J García-Teruel, Pedro Martínez-SolanoArticle first published online: 10 OCT 2008DOI: 1111/1468-036Xx已发送至你邮箱，请及时采纳！！
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