过秦论
【作者】贾谊 【朝代】汉
秦孝公据崤函之固，拥雍州之地，君臣固守以窥周室，有席卷天下，包举宇内，囊括四海之意，并吞八荒之心。当是时也，商君佐之，内立法度，务耕织，修守战之具，外连衡而斗诸侯。于是秦人拱手而取西河之外。
孝公既没，惠文、武、昭襄蒙故业，因遗策，南取汉中，西举巴、蜀，东割膏腴之地，北收要害之郡。诸侯恐惧，会盟而谋弱秦，不爱珍器重宝肥饶之地，以致天下之士，合从缔交，相与为一。当此之时，齐有孟尝，赵有平原，楚有春申，魏有信陵。
此四君者，皆明智而忠信，宽厚而爱人，尊贤而重士，约从离衡，兼韩、魏、燕、楚、齐、赵、宋、卫、中山之众。于是六国之士，有宁越、徐尚、苏秦、杜赫之属为之谋，齐明、周最、陈轸、召滑、楼缓、翟景、苏厉、乐毅之徒通其意，吴起、孙膑、带佗、倪良、王廖、田忌、廉颇、赵奢之伦制其兵。
尝以十倍之地，百万之众，叩关而攻秦。秦人开关延敌，九国之师，逡巡而不敢进。秦无亡矢遗镞之费，而天下诸侯已困矣。于是从散约败，争割地而赂秦。秦有余力而制其弊，追亡逐北，伏尸百万，流血漂橹；因利乘便，宰割天下，分裂山河。强国请服，弱国入朝。
延及孝文王、庄襄王，享国之日浅，国家无事。及至始皇，奋六世之余烈，振长策而御宇内，吞二周而亡诸侯，履至尊而制六合，执敲扑而鞭笞天下，威振四海。南取百越之地，以为桂林、象郡；百越之君，俯首系颈，委命下吏。
乃使蒙恬北筑长城而守藩篱，却匈奴七百余里；胡人不敢南下而牧马，士不敢弯弓而报怨。于是废先王之道，焚百家之言，以愚黔首；隳名城，杀豪杰；收天下之兵，聚之咸阳，销锋镝，铸以为金人十二，以弱天下之民。
然后践华为城，因河为池，据亿丈之城，临不测之渊，以为固。良将劲弩守要害之处，信臣精卒陈利兵而谁何。天下已定，始皇之心，自以为关中之固，金城千里，子孙帝王万世之业也。
始皇既没，余威震于殊俗。然陈涉瓮牖绳枢之子，氓隶之人，而迁徙之徒也；才能不及中人，非有仲尼，墨翟之贤，陶朱、猗顿之富；蹑足行伍之间，而倔起阡陌之中，率疲弊之卒，将数百之众，转而攻秦；斩木为兵，揭竿为旗，天下云集响应，赢粮而景从。山东豪俊遂并起而亡秦族矣。
且夫天下非小弱也，雍州之地，崤函之固，自若也。陈涉之位，非尊于齐、楚、燕、赵、韩、魏、宋、卫、中山之君也；锄櫌棘矜，非铦于钩戟长铩也；谪戍之众，非抗于九国之师也；深谋远虑，行军用兵之道，非及向时之士也。然而成败异变，功业相反，何也？
试使山东之国与陈涉度长絜大，比权量力，则不可同年而语矣。然秦以区区之地，致万乘之势，序八州而朝同列，百有余年矣；然后以六合为家，崤函为宫；一夫作难而七庙隳，身死人手，为天下笑者，何也？仁义不施而攻守之势异也。
《过秦论》是贾谊政论文的代表作，分上中下三篇。
全文从各个方面分析秦王朝的过失，故名为《过秦论》。此文旨在总结秦速亡的历史教训，以作为汉王朝建立制度、巩固统治的借鉴，是一组见解深刻而又极富艺术感染力的文章。
《过秦论》上篇先讲述秦自孝公以迄始皇逐渐强大的原因：具有地理的优势、实行变法图强的主张、正确的战争策略、几世秦王的苦心经营等。行文中采用了排比式的句子和铺陈式的描写方法，富有气势；之后则写陈涉虽然本身力量微小，却能使强大的秦国覆灭，在对比中得出秦亡在于“仁义不施”的结论。
中篇剖析秦统一天下后没有正确的政策，秦二世没有能够改正秦始皇的错误政策，主要指责秦二世的过失。下篇写秦在危迫的情况下，秦王子婴没有救亡扶倾的才力，主要指责秦王子婴的过失。
首篇《过秦论》,是贾谊政论文中的名篇。另一篇著名政论文《陈政事疏》,又称《治安策》,载于《汉书·贾谊传》。
《过秦论》是贾谊政论散文的代表作，分上中下三篇。
王朝更替原因及启示除古代中国外，全球其他地区的王朝覆灭后往往意味着人种、文化、宗教的更替，古罗马、印度、拜占庭等都是如此。但中国的王朝却仅仅意味着座天下者的不同，其它一切照旧。这使中国文明获得了使西方史家十分称奇的连续性。使中国文明连续不断的原因是很多的，有制度、文字、宗教等方面的因素。但我认为最根本的一条则是汉人很早就在东亚大陆上确立了人口、文化方面的绝对优势。没有这些优势，中国像西罗马帝国这样早早彻底覆灭不是不可以想象。中国文明的的另一特点是具体王朝的年限较短。少的只有数十年，如秦、隋等；多也不超过三百年，如汉、唐、宋、明等。这与西罗马立国近千年，拜占庭帝国享国近千年相比实在显得太短。可见，中国文明总体连续性的另一面是频率较高的周期性振荡。中国历史上每一次改朝换代都会带来生灵涂炭，社会文化、经济则随之遭到严重破坏，有时甚至于因此遭到外族的奴役。在没有过于强大的敌国外患的古代，这种周期性的变乱还不至于有亡族、亡文化之祸，但在号称“新战国”的今天，再发生这样的变乱，则其后果是难以想象的。中国文明的总体连续性与周期性的振荡有什么关系吗？两者是互为因果的吗？以后的中国能在继续保持文明连续性的同时避免振荡或者减轻振荡的烈度吗？要回答这些问题首先要搞清这种周期性的振荡是如何产生的。其实类似的问题前人也问过。黄炎培曾问过毛泽东：“我生六十多年，耳闻的不说，所亲眼看到的，真所谓其兴也勃焉，其亡也忽焉，一人、一家、一团体，一地方，乃至一国，许多许多单位都没有能跳出这周期律的支配力……“黄炎培还指出，从历史的角度来看，有政怠宦成的，有人亡政息的，也有求荣取辱的，但都没能跳出这一周期率。他问毛泽东有什么方法跳出这一周期率？对此，毛泽东回答是：“我们已经找到新路，我们能跳出这周期率。这条新路，就是民主。只有让人民来监督政府，政府才不敢松懈。只有人人起来负责，才不会人亡政息。”显然，毛泽东认为腐败是造成王朝衰败的根源，而民主是扼制腐败的良方。毛泽东的回答真的找到了问题的实质了吗？我看却未必然。因为腐败是中西共有现象，而周期性动荡则是中国的特有现象，共有现象显然不能成为特有现象的原因。那么，这一问题的本质到底何在呢？其实只要大家翻翻中国史书，就可以观察到这样的一个现象：中国历代王朝的中晚期总伴有较大规模的农民起义，如秦之陈胜、吴广，西汉末年的绿林、赤眉，唐之黄巢，明之李自成、张献忠等。而这些农民军的主力几乎都是流民。什么是流民？流民就是衣食无着被迫流亡的人。当一个人的基本生存条件能得到满足时，起来与社会既成秩序作殊死对抗的可能是很少的。而王朝的中晚期有这么大的流民队伍出现，显然是有相当一部分民众的生计成了问题。我们可以证明在中国古代专制体制之下，大规模流民的产生是必然的。因为传统中国一向崇尚多子多福，人口的自然增长几不能节制。按徐光启等的研究，在承平年代，大概每三十年人口就会倍增。而在特定的生产力条件下，全国的可耕地有限，粮食生产总有个极限。当全国人口数超过全国土地的极限供养人口时，流民的出现将不可避免。这与腐败、土地兼并及社会制度都无必然联系，只要耕地不能增加，人口增长速度不减，生产力不能进步，这问题始终会产生。可以作为上述理论佐证的是中国人口史上有一个现象：几乎每一个皇朝由盛由衰拐点也是该王朝的人口高点。如西汉平帝时全国人口达到西汉的最高点6000万，随后则有王莽篡位及改制以及后的绿林、赤眉大起义；如唐天宝年间全国人口数达到8000万，随后就出现“安史之乱”，如国泰民安，恐怕不会有这么多人跟着胡儿安禄山作乱；17世纪初（明朝的后期）中国实际人口达到破天荒的2亿之巨，随后就有李自成、张献忠的大起义；清道光三十年（1850年）全国人口达到了4.3 亿，随后就有太平天国大起义。中国历代王朝的最高人口数为什么会增加，这显然与耕地面积的增加、农业技术的进步有关，但就是这样，在特定时代，可养活人口总有个上限。①从以上的事实可以看出：一些所谓“盛世”的末期人口数实际上已超过当时王朝所能承受的极限，而一些风吹草动般的事件如兵变、外患、自然灾难都会成为压跨骆驼的最后一根稻草。展开剩余90% 0
记得第一次知道贾谊这个名字是在高中，那时在学他很有名的政论文《过秦论》。当时虽不能完全理解文中内容，但却被文章的气势和才气所感，每每诵读，都感觉胸中激荡，久久不能平静。从老师的讲授中，略略知道，贾谊是因为梁怀王不慎坠马，自伤而死。但其中更深的原因，并不很清楚,对贾谊也并没有特别的印象，在略带一丝不解的无知中，渐渐把贾谊忘到了脑后。不久前偶读苏轼的《贾谊论》，让我在对贾谊的自伤而死感到深深惋惜的同时，也对自己在追求理想中遇到的挫折和困难有了新的认识。苏轼开篇便说“非才之难，所以自用者实难。惜乎，贾生王者之佐，而不能自用其才也。”在苏轼看来，人应该有两种才能:第一是才干，就是智商要高，要有学识；第二是要具备充分发挥并利用自己才干的本领。苏轼认为，正是贾谊缺少第二种才能，才导致了悲剧的发生。“夫君子之所取者远，则必有所待；所就者大，则必有所忍。”意思大致是说，一个人所追求的理想远大，必须有所等待；所追求的目标宏大，则必须有所忍耐。这也是苏轼一以贯之的主张，在评价张良的《留侯论》中:“天下有大勇者，卒然临之而不惊，无故加之而不怒。此其所挟者甚大，而其志甚远也。”“比其能有所忍也，然后可以就大事”、“忍小忿而就大谋”，一个人必定要“爱其身”，要有“方今天下，舍我其谁”的自信和豁达，才可以逐渐实现自己的愿望、抱负，才可以没有什么怨恨。一个人“有所待”和“有所忍”，很重要的`一点是要“善处穷”。这里的穷，并不单指经济上的困难，还包括政治上的不得志等不愉快的处境，也就是说一个人要学会在困境中生存，不因“穷”而懈怠，放弃自己的理想。应以古哲先贤为榜样，如“文王拘而演周易,仲尼厄而作春秋,屈原放逐,乃赋离骚”，应常以“故天将降大任于是人也，必先苦其心志，劳其筋骨，饿其体肤，空乏其身”自勉，而绝不应“忧伤病沮，不能复振”。苏轼哀贾谊道：“志大而量小，才有余而识不足”，这也是在告诫后人，一个人不但要有远大的理想，还要有宽广的胸怀，不但要有卓越的才华，还应审时度势，充分发挥自己的能力。非此不能“取远”，非此不能“就大”。
对于贾谊，大家都不会陌生。他是西汉初年著名政论家、文学家，极具才华。可是，有才华并不代表就能够仕途顺遂。贾谊在担任太中大夫时，受到大臣周勃和灌婴的排挤，被贬为长沙王太傅。虽然三年之后被召回长安成为了梁怀王太傅，但后来梁怀王坠马而死，贾谊因歉疚也抑郁而终了。 由此可见，贾谊的一生还是很坎坷的。怀才不遇，遭受冷落，眼看自己的才智抱负无用武之地，因此才会有以吊屈原来叹息自身命运的《吊屈原赋》。 贾谊的辞赋著作皆为骚体，形式趋于散体化，是汉赋发展的先声。最为著名的就是《吊屈原赋》了。 《吊屈原赋》是在贾谊被贬长沙时所作。贾谊在赋中对屈原的遭遇表示深深的悼惜，这其实就是对他自身的处境感到悲伤，因为他们的经历有着许多的相似之处。因此他将对自己命运的悲愤不平与对屈原经历的忧愁悼惜结合在了一起，表达了他对世间能人怀才不遇而奸人小人得意的局面的不满。 那么，贾谊与屈原他们的经历到底有着哪些相似之处，使得贾谊选取屈原这个人物来作为自己感怀的对象？ 首先，贾谊与屈原都是满腹经纶才华之人。贾谊十八岁便“颇通诸子百家之书”。在政论文和散文上都成就颇高。屈原是一位杰出的政治家和爱国志士，也是中国文学史上第一位伟大的爱国诗人，是浪漫主义诗人的杰出代表。他开创了新诗体—楚辞，为中国的十个创作开辟了一片新天地。 其次，他们都曾仕途顺遂过，前期没有坎坷。贾谊弱冠之时就被孝文帝赏识，此后一直官运恒通。屈原受楚怀王信任，任左徒、三闾大夫，兼管内政外交大事。 最后，他们都遭受到小人的污蔑，被贬谪。贾谊贾谊在担任太中大夫时，受到大臣周勃和灌婴的排挤，被贬为长沙王太傅。屈原因遭贵族排挤诽谤，被先后流放至汉北和沅湘流域。 正是因为这些相同之处，才会使得贾谊选取屈原这一历史人物作为对象，来间接感怀自己。可是，从《吊屈原赋》中，我们会发现其实这篇赋的很多思想感情都与屈原的《楚辞》有很大的不同。《吊屈原赋》中贾谊描绘了一个善恶颠倒、是非混乱的黑暗世界，流露出对自己无辜遭遇的愤慨与对屈原的同情。但是他并不赞同屈原以身殉国的做法。贾谊主张的是“远浊世而自藏”以保全自己，这才符合“圣人之神德”。那么他们的作品表达的思想为什么会有如此差异呢？ 这是因为他们具有不同的生死观。屈原所怀的是儒家杀身成仁的思想，理想不能实现就不惜殉以生命。贾谊虽然也怀有儒家思想，但是除此之外，他还兼有盛行于汉初的道家的旷达精神。所以在《吊屈原赋》中，忧国忧民的忧患意识并没有那么深沉，；对于自身理想没有实现上，贾谊也没有那么执着，反而更豁达，像是看破世俗，更加彻悟了。 虽然从《吊屈原赋》中可以感受到贾谊的豁达通脱，但其实细细品味，还是能够从字里行间感受到他隐忍着深沉的悲哀。
Western novels in comparison First, Western novels in the history of the development of Western novels are based on myths and legends of its origin. In ancient times, science developed, out of fear of nature, the working people out of the imagination is the key to many of the world "God", describing the personification of God is a myth; who will describe the deified, that is legend. China opened the world's Pan story, the story of San Juan Five Emperors, the West Greek mythology, Roman mythology, Norse mythology, and so on are all typical works. East and West, the original novel, is closely linked with the history, as historical records complement the event. China Pre-Qin prose in the fable, the Han dynasty in the history books, biographies, the Wei and Jin Zhi, Zhi-person novel; the West of ancient Babylon, "the United States and Ji Jia disabilities epic", in ancient Greece, "Homer's epic," "Aesop's Fables "And so on, fall into this category, fiction, novels such novels have been about the characteristics of fiction, it is still not the literary creation, directly from the private collection record, so this type of fiction plot is relatively simple, writing rough comparison. Ban Gu said, "On the Street Lane words, hearsay are made of" is a novel kind of accurate assessment of the image. China's Tang Dynasty, the novel is only from history and literature become a creativity. Tang Dynasty culture has developed, the author's ideas are more open, the legend came into being at this time, Li Zhaowei "Liu Yi Chuan", Po Chu's "Everlasting Regret," Wolf's "Everlasting Regret Chuan" And so on, are made in accordance with the creation of the legend. For the fictional story of the Tang Dynasty more emphasis on imagination and literary talent, not just the history of the nature of things, but as the history of Zhi Zhi who is also the novel did not stop. The Legend of the Song Dynasty to the novel on a gradual decline, which followed the rise of this so that after processing will become a scholar so many novel and Romance novels such as "Romance of the Three Kingdoms", "Outlaws of the Marsh", "Journey to the West." The author of such novels is the use of private creative and re-created to describe the circumstances of the touching scenes of brilliant and vivid active in shaping the character known, there are obvious story-telling style of language. Here by the redevelopment, it will become an independent literary creation rather than things to come together with the civil process, the representative of this type is the "Golden Lotus", it was an open and ordinary life on the road, the reality is that literature has come a long way The development of the latter's "A Dream of Red Mansions" in ancient China Geng Shiba realism to the novels of the summit. "54" after the novelist began to learn from China's western fiction writing practices, and gradually out a new path. Western novels, is the "Renaissance" after the rapid development of mature. The development of the Middle Ages novel near-stagnation in the West, 14, the end of the century "Renaissance" to overthrow the literature of the Church of control, 15, appeared in the western end of the century to promote freedom of thought and the liberation of personality in order to describe the reality of life and portray characters from all walks of life for the content of the Humanist novels, is to tie in with this type of novel anti-feudal Europe at the time of arising at the same time it also set the novel in the West to human describing the tone of the main things. Jiaqiu Italy's "Decameron", Spain's Cervantes "Don Quixote" is the kind of representative works of fiction. The resulting novel is a classical, elegant favor of its national language to standardize the writing of this novel in 17th century France's most well-developed. As a note on behalf of Corneille's "Cid" neoclassical story of the rise of Western novels have been a language substantially improved. The beginning of the 18th century to promote popular science knowledge, enlightenment of the public consciousness for the purpose of the Enlightenment novels, of which there are relatively well-known German Goethe's "Faust", the United Kingdom Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" and the Swift "Gulliver's Travels" and so on, this type of novel to the emergence of the bourgeois revolution at the time to mold public opinion. In the 19th century, romantic fiction, realistic novels and critical realism novel turn to occupy the leading position in the field of fiction. Romantic novels, such as France Victor Hugo's "Notre Dame de Paris", Goethe's "juvenile Witt of trouble" and so on, imaginative, unusual ideas, language and imaginative, strong feelings. Efforts to reflect the reality of the novel is the essence of life, and depict typical life of a typical phenomenon in the United Kingdom Dickens, France and Germany are of such novels as a representative of the writer. Critical realism novels exposed the efforts of the decadent feudal system and capitalist society, the dark, in-depth criticism of the reality of evil, France Balzac and Maupassant, the United Kingdom of Charlotte, Bronte,. Russia's Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, the United States of a large number of writers such as Mark Twain's works belong to this category. Value today, the three novels in the West is still the most important of the three types of literary fiction. East-West novel on the history of the development of more or less the case. Second, the characteristics of the novel in the West In addition to the basic characteristics of the novel, the story of the West also have their own characteristics are as follows: 1, the traditional Chinese novel attention to the characters, language and the details of the description, in contradiction to the conflict to display the images, but the character of a single, small changes in the absence of the main flu. Western novels are more people pay attention to the psychological description, stressed that mining figure in the subconscious mind, good at writing full, the changes in the strong sense of the main characters. Again, "coach Lin Feng Snow Mountain Temple" in the figure is only through dialogue and action leads to contradictions and conflicts, but Anna Karenina Wogui before a series of conflicts only with his description of the psychological will be able to express their clear; for poetry in Lin In the performance of her literary talent, and Paul with his inner monologue of the ideal; Zhang Zhong-Yong has only the character, but Jane Eyre's character is the brave, strong, warm, kind-hearted, and so many of the character and rubbing and Cheng's. In short, people in the area described in the West has its own unique features. 2, China compared with Western fiction novel plot twists and turns more and more complete story. Plot twists and turns, the story is complete fiction China's unique traditional arts. The Wei and Jin Zhi Zhi people on the novel twists and turns with vivid characteristics. Tang legend in the layout of many of the famous, magnificent anomaly, rigorous and clever, dramatic plot development. The contents of the Ming and Qing Dynasties novels scattered irregular, undulating waves, Cuoluoyouzhi, careful structure, an integral whole. "A Dream of Red Mansions", everywhere She Fu, Hui turning point, the story of Jia's best writing. Western plot in respect of the outstanding works, although there are many, but it can not be compared with the Chinese novel. 3, concise and lively Chinese language novel, rich in content and rich Western novels. Chinese folk artists absorbed the novel language, at the same time inherited the fine traditions of ancient prose, often a few words will be able to outline the incident or the people. Western novels in the author includes a broad range of knowledge, involve the community in many ways, so rich in content and rich people can gain knowledge in many areas. Engels said he was in Balzac's novel about 19th century France's domestic situation than he received any reports are more. Western novels have different characteristics, and also in the West different aesthetic concepts to a certain extent related. 4, Western novels have been the rule of the feudal culture of oppression destroyed. Chinese feudal culture makes the development of the novel is extremely difficult, Ming and Qing Dynasties more people to write stories for shame, so many great writers living, creating the conditions are not covered, many of the great works of authors who do not know. Western novels in the feudal culture makes almost the whole of the Middle Ages in the development of extremely slow, and many talented writers were forced to church services, wrote some of the religious nature of the article dry hole. Third, Western novels in the future prospects for the development of End of the Qing Dynasty, China and the West have begun to understand the other side of the system, the advantages of the novel in the West have been constantly learn from each other. Of course, due to historical reasons, the Chinese side of the draw a little more. To this day, the novelist in the West efforts are still two researchers in the novel's artistic charm, although the different languages of each other's appreciation of the arts to a certain extent, but the United States are interlinked. We have every reason to believe that in the near future, the novel art in the West will ultimately learn from each other and integrate, develop and reach new artistic heights. References: "Foreign Literature" Shanghai Translation Publishing House Zhou Xu Liang "Contemporary Literature election," Zhang Zhong, such as Beijing University Publishing House "Chinese literature history of the development of" Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House Liu Jie "Literary History of Europe" People's Literature Publishing House Yangzhou Han Wu Da-yuan Zhao Rui radish "Three high school language textbook used by the five dates of the" People's Education Press仅供参考，请自借鉴。希望对您有帮助。
对于朋友之间的友谊，中西方人却有着很大的理解上和态度上的差异。多数中国人很难理解西方人所谓好朋友的概念。尽管随着我国的对外开放政策，越来越多的西方文化涌入中国，更多的人渐渐懂得了哪些该问，哪些不该说，以尊重朋友的隐私，但是由于受到长期文化传统的浸透，双方对于保持友谊的做法上差异很大。 例如，在我们这里，一个人会很爽快的答应他的好朋友陪他去购物的邀请，即便他手头上有一些事情要做。好朋友之间会长期分享同甘共苦的感受。袒露各自的秘密。而在西方人看来，你完全可让一位朋友和你一起做某件事，但是你不要期待他会放下他在做的事，去陪你去做类似于购物那种不是很紧迫的事。即使是非常好的朋友也应该接受对方说‘不’，只要对方能够给出理由。其间的独立性是显而易见的。在西方，居住地的搬迁，工作的更换，学业的结束，婚姻的变化等等，都有可能使得深厚的友谊发生改变。这也说明他们的友谊较多地建立在互相经常性的来往上。一旦这种频繁的交往变的稀少或停止，那么他们的友谊就会凋谢并消亡。这和我们传统中所说的‘两情若到久长时，又岂在朝朝暮暮’相去甚远。中国人比较多的是希望良好的友谊能够永远保持下去，直到一生。然而，西方人在一个时间内会有很多好朋友，但是这种友谊往往同特定的条件与情况有联系。一旦情况发生改变，朋友也就发生改变。他们更多的是独立性，而非依赖性。他们不喜欢一方过多的依赖另一方。在中国，我们常常可以看到一个人对于他人在经济上经常性的资助，而在西方这可能更多被看作为让被资助方产生依赖性，也不符合他们对于个人品质培养的原则。而在中国，朋友间更多是需要得到具体实在的帮助。比如，找一份不错工作，请一位好的医生，职务的提升等等。西方人会因为对朋友带来哪怕是非常小的不便而向他致歉。在十分亲近的朋友间也使用很有礼貌的语言。而在我们这里，往往相反。比如，朋友不言谢。不必客套等等。 所有这些差异都有其深远的文化背景与传统影响。我们只能互相尊重，互相理解。了解中西方之间在观念，思维，习俗，人际交往上的差异会有助于彼此建立起更良好的关系。
隐喻的中西方文化差异Abstract: Metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon but also a way of thinking, which is one of the basic methods for human survival and cognition. It is rooted in language, thought and culture. Through the analysis and comparison of the use and concept of metaphor in different countries, we find that its universality and commonality of the metaphor as a basic human cognitive activities. However, metaphor in different languages reflects a different way of thinking and behavior and different cultural patterns. Owing to the different two modes of thinking and culture, there are some differences in understanding and formation that can not be ignored. Therefore, this paper will discuss the questions above.Keywords: metaphor, cross-cultural differences, translation. 1. Preamble Metaphor is a common phenomenon, a large number of people use metaphor to express his feelings and ideas. British scientists rhetoric Richards (IARichards) once said, "We have day-to-day in almost every conversation in three sentences may be a metaphor." According to statistics, life around the use of 4,700,000 new metaphor, 2,140,000 stereotypes of metaphor. Research in recent years, there is a great metaphor. This article introduced in the definition of metaphor on the basis of summing up the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western metaphor, and that its culture, precisely because of the prevalence of metaphor, how to translate metaphor has become a very important issue in the latter part of the article is aimed at The translation of metaphor put forward a translation of the three strategies. This paper studies aimed at trying to comparative analysis of English and Chinese in a large number of day-to-day language of metaphor to express, find out the differences and similarities, in order to be able to accurately translate the article in good metaphor to explore a little. This article is about the metaphor from the point of view to explore the differences in the way Thinking allows us to a deeper understanding of language, culture, the relationship between thinking and can more clearly understand the different ethnic language, culture, way of thinking, and so on On the nature of translation. 2. Metaphors in Chinese and Western studies In 1980, Lakoff & Johnson (George Lakoff & Mark Johnson) made a "living metaphor" (Metaphors We Live By) of the book, a modern metaphor to open a new chapter in the school. Domestic academia on the "metaphor" This is also a review of the system, such as Lin Wu's book "Study abroad metaphor Looking at the" beam-setting "metaphor research," Li of China and India "The main subjects Metaphor" and so on. However, the Chinese metaphor for the academic study of rare. "Chinese scholars on the study of metaphor, I am afraid the real contribution should be through the metaphor of the Chinese characteristics of research and study, through the metaphor of the Chinese and other languages in the comparative study of metaphor, metaphor for the establishment of a more general theory of the strong, and even unique The basis. "Lin Wu in the book" metaphor of the basic research the status quo, and the focus of the trend "in the main text, put forward a model of cultural metaphors with the relationship:" The language of metaphor is the emergence of expression into the system, which not only reflects the psychological Structure, but also reflect the different cultural models also play a role. " 2.1 metaphor in the relationship between Chinese and Western cultures 2.1.1 relationship Correspond to (corresponding) refers to the relationship between the two languages, English and Chinese in the meaning and metaphor in the use of the same meaning in the culture and image, and so on and-one mapping. This is because the survival of mankind itself, as well as all the external conditions, including the geographical environment, climate change, and the whole of human society and cultural background are certain there is a common, which formed a common humanity of their own and the outside world on many issues. In the "angry" mood, the English are angry that physiological responses, such as: grind one's teeth. (Teeth), bare one's teeth. (Ziyaliezui) an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. (an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth), reflecting the Chinese culture on the basis of common experience. 2.1.2 non-correspondence English-Chinese metaphor, after all, rooted in two different languages on the soil, resulting in very different cultural backgrounds, fully corresponds to the few metaphors, the vast majority do not have common cultural identity in order to form the corresponding non-(non-corresponding ) Relations. Non-relationship metaphor can be roughly divided into three categories: 2.1.2.1 Vehicle counterpart, Yu Yi does not correspond to English and Chinese in some cases there is the same as a metaphor, but in their own language and culture in the meaning of the metaphor means is different, even different. Peacock in the Chinese culture is auspicious, a symbol of beauty, especially the Dai people to express jumped Pavaner desire to better their own. If the Chinese people will be likened to a peacock, it means that beautiful light. However, in English, peacock (Peacock) is a symbol of pride, often interpreted as arrogance, love to show off. For example, They were eager to take the young peacock down a peg. (They want to pressure a pressure that the arrogant young guy's momentum). 2.1.2.2 counterpart Yu Yi, the vehicle does not correspond to English-Chinese two nations due to their differences, from different angles to look at things the same, it will be a different analogy. As a result both English and Chinese language there is a different vehicle, but Yu was referring to was basically the same as the meaning of the case, that is the same kind of non-correspondence. Such as: a person described as the hearts of anxious, restless, Chinese is "ants on the hot pan" and English is "a cat on the bricks". There are similar: To kick down the ladder. Guohechaiqiao. 2.1.2.3 Yu Yu Yi and do not correspond to Some of the metaphors Yu-Yu has a meaning and it refers to the language and culture are closely related, in another culture often can not find corresponding Yu and Yu Yi, which resulted in a culture known as the default Phenomenon. For example: in English "my rib" I am referring to Yu's wife, it comes from the "Bible" story, that is, Adam (Adam)'s wife Eve (Eve) God is with a piece of Adam's rib made. The Chinese did not, "the Bible" cultural background, and there was no analogy with rib habit, so the formation of a corresponding gap. Similarly, "ugly duckling" (Ugly Duckling) refers to the metaphor will get ahead of Little, "early bird" refers to the diligent Yu, in the words into Chinese language, culture, as a result of the default, can not find a corresponding relationship between metaphor . 2.2 Chinese and Western cultures in the common metaphor Metaphor and culture to a large extent, human beings have a common understanding, rooted in the people's own day-to-day experience. In this connection, often between different ethnic groups are the same. Both English and Chinese language in a lot of abstract thinking that the metaphorical expression is the same. For example: the human child in the period to form a position on the concept of input in that direction in the form of many of them easily understood, including the position expressed by metaphor, which has become a fixed pattern of thinking. For example: The term direction (up, down) to describe people's social status, physical, emotional, and other abstract concepts to the case when the good is up; Sad is down. We Chinese are also not difficult to find a similar sentence: "Gas Prices "," enhance the social status "and" vision "and" depressed. " Since the objective laws of nature with the relative unity of different cultures to understand the nature of the course is similar to the cognitive experience. 2.3 in the metaphor of the difference between Chinese and Western cultures As the English-Chinese geographical and cultural differences, living in two different cultures in practice there are a lot of differences, and different life experiences and let people understand the objective world, a different language carries different nationalities Cultural characteristics and cultural information. Understanding of metaphor is not out of socio-cultural backgrounds. For example, social and cultural impact of the color words is deep-rooted, some color words in different cultures in an entirely different meaning, has a distinctive feature of our national culture. Such as: English, said in green "inexperienced" and "shallow knowledge", such as: "a green hand", "I was very green when I started working there." The Chinese like to express the meaning of the word is "yellow" Such as: "Huangmaoyatou" and "flower girl". Cultural background knowledge is the metaphor to create a rich source of thinking, as the Eastern and Western cultures are different, metaphors in English and Chinese applications there are also significant differences. 2.4 The metaphor of the cross-cultural differences between Chinese and Western influence Language is a cultural change in the development of the complex, subject to political, economic, historical, environmental and other factors. Chinese and Western styles are different, but in many ways to infiltrate interaction and integration, language differences and cultural metaphor for the inevitable impact is complex and diverse. 2.4.1 metaphorical expression of cultural conflict Different nationalities in the world to observe a different perspective and ideas, different cultures there are a lot of conflict or inconsistency metaphor. If the animal metaphors, in English Long (dragon) is a kind of evil, will belch out smoke monster. "Bible", the dragon is the devil, is a symbol of evil and terror, there is a terrible vicious meaning. The Chinese dragon is in power, the auspicious symbol of Chinese traditional culture, the Chinese have "Wangzichenglong", "descendants of the Dragon." The same analogy in different cultures, different meaning, of two cultures "Dragon" to give a different connotation. 2.4.2 differences in living conditions caused by differences in metaphor In English is a lot of metaphor and marine-related, such as: all at sea (at a loss what to do); drink like a fish (drinking cow); fish in the air (Shuizhonglaoyue); give up the ship (give up). In Chinese, there are a lot of the horse or cattle pose a metaphor, such as: "a willing ox" (a willing horse) Gan means to serve the community; "old ox" (a working horse) refers to the hard work; "bragging "(Talk horse), and so on. This is due to different geographical location and natural environment caused by different cultural metaphor. Britain is an island, ultimately, dependent on the sea, and China is a large agricultural country, farming culture deeply feudal society. 2.4.3 different religious and cultural differences arising from the metaphor Religious culture of human culture is an important part of it by referring to the nation's religious beliefs, such as the formation of the sense of culture, "the Bible" in the story, with its language and meaning has become a feature of daily life in the West in terms of . For example, power of the keys (the keys to the kingdom of heaven; the rights of the Pope), in the right church, but in the wrong pew (in general is right, but not the details), and so on. Chinese culture and Buddhism, Taoism and more affected by the impact of Confucianism, the Chinese, there are a lot of related argot. "Jiehuaxianfo"; "临时抱佛脚"; "做一天和尚撞一天钟" and so on. It is due to the diversity of culture, resulting in the differences between English and Chinese metaphor. This difference to the cross-cultural communication has brought the impact. As a foreign language students, do not understand the difference between metaphor and language will make mistakes, sometimes mistakenly made good as pleasant, caused by either one or both of the conversation unpleasant; also sometimes mocked as a praise. When a native language other operators do not understand the language contained in the cultural differences, it is often difficult for such language to accurately convey the meaning of the understanding, difficulty to the cross-cultural exchange. 3. Metaphor of the three methods of translation The translation of metaphor not only accurately and effectively convey the original language, but also loyal, accessible, complete reproduction of the original language and cultural connotation and significance. But in the West because of cultural differences and different, so the translation of metaphor in English on the need to consider not only its literal sense, and so on, but also in the West should pay attention to their cultural differences. American Eugene Nida said: "Translation is the exchange between the two cultures. The real success of the translation, even more familiar with the two cultures is more important to master two languages. Because only in terms of its role in the culture In the background will only be meaningful. "Therefore, the translation of metaphor to combining Chinese and Western cultures, and cultural backgrounds to leave the translation, can not be achieved between the two languages of the real exchange. 3.1 Literal Translation The so-called "literal" is asked in the language when conditions permit, in the translation to maintain the original content, but also to maintain the original form, in particular, to maintain the original metaphor, the image of the nation, and other local color. In the literal translation method to maintain the original expression of the culture and at the same time, target enriched the vocabulary and expression, such as: "a Pandora's box" (Pandora's Box); "chain reaction" (chain reaction). In the original text and asked the information contained in the same culture, we should adopt the literal translation method. (1) You are my sunshine, my only sunshine. : You are my sun, my only sunshine. In Chinese and English, the sun is warm, beautiful, in both languages, they disseminate information on culture are the same. As a rule, and asked in the original text in the form of grammatical structure, similar to the style or color on basically the same, the law should adopt the literal translation. (1) He is another Shylock. : He is also a Shylock. (Note: Shakespeare's Shylock is "The Merchant of Venice" in a very harsh mean business People. ) (2) To carry coals to Newcastle. : Coal to Newcastle. (Note: "Newcastle" is a British coal, coal is superfluous here.) 4. Conclusion Metaphor as a way to figures of speech or skills, a unique feature of grammar, which features make the sentence more flexible and constructive, but the United States. Is a metaphor to express more complex ideas and things, a powerful tool. Wherever and whenever people in their daily lives are often used metaphor. As Mr. Lin Zhuang said: "The metaphor is no longer expanding his knowledge and understanding of a passive process. To help us in the form of new knowledge, the metaphor has played an active role so that we can better a better understanding of the objective world." In English and Chinese Metaphorical significance of the difference is due to cultural differences between East and West, that mode of thinking, moral values and sense of difference. However, different cultural impact of what is the concept of metaphor, it is still a need to examine and address the problem. At the same time, in the metaphor of the process of translation must pay special attention to cultural differences. The best translation is to be able to accurately reflect the true meaning of the author, as well as its cultural and stylistic characteristics of the translation, that is, the translation of metaphor to make as much as possible the original language and to achieve the target language culture, and so on.
1、 (英语系毕业论文)中西戏剧发展快慢对比及其原因 摘 要 中西戏剧都有悠久的历史，无论是西方戏剧还是中国戏剧，都起源于民间，并与原始人祭祀神灵，欢庆节日的仪式密切联系在一起的。回顾希腊戏剧产生形成的历史，它发展快，成就高，在世界上的影响很... 类别：毕业论文 大小：95 KB 日期：2007-07-14 2、 (英语系毕业论文)从中美管理方式的不同透析中西方文化差异与整合 摘 要随着全球化的来临，中国与外界的交流越来越频繁，特别是在商界。本论文主要探讨中美在管理上的交流。如今的商界，如同一个大家庭，参与者遍布世界各地。正是由于这个原因，各国的管理模式也趋于一体化。但是... 类别：毕业论文 大小：85 KB 日期：2007-06-26 3、 (英语系毕业论文)在经济全球化下中西方文化差异与跨文化管理 摘 要伴随着世界经济的快速增长,跨国公司的飞速发展, 全球商业活动的猛烈激增，同时伴随着在文化多样化环境下的相关管理问题的出现，跨国公司的人员必须与来自不同文化背景的人打交道，这种文化差异时而会造成... 类别：毕业论文 大小：96 KB 日期：2007-06-26 4、 (英语系毕业论文)中西服饰文化差异对语言的影响 摘 要中西服饰受其各自不同哲学和文化的影响体现出不同的特征：儒家思想和大陆文明使中国服饰呈现出繁冗，宽博的特征。它不注重外表的装饰，以宽松的衣服遮掩身体的曲线，在思想上追求人格的完美，以“谦谦君... 类别：毕业论文 大小：90 KB 日期：2007-06-25 5、 (英语系毕业论文)快餐食品对中西方传统饮食文化的影响力 摘 要自古以来，中国就是一个以礼待人的礼仪之邦。而在不同的国家、不同的地区，礼仪的形式也有所不同。本文主要从礼仪的角度谈论了礼仪与中西方文化之间的联系及相互影响，目的是为了消除不同国家之间的不同... 类别：毕业论文 大小：88 KB 日期：2007-06-25 6、 (英语系毕业论文)从礼仪角度谈中西文化的差异性 摘 要自古以来，中国就是一个以礼待人的礼仪之邦。而在不同的国家、不同的地区，礼仪的形式也有所不同。本文主要从礼仪的角度谈论了礼仪与中西方文化之间的联系及相互影响，目的是为了消除不同国家之间的不同... 类别：毕业论文 大小：85 KB 日期：2007-06-23 7、 (英语系毕业论文)中西饮食文化及其差异 摘 要中国悠久历史5000年，西方世界五六百年的社会历程。中国有灿烂丰富、博大精深的饮食文化；西方国家则有精巧专维、自成体系的饮食文明。民以食为天，中国有自己独特丰富的饮食文化底蕴。然而今天除了中国... 类别：毕业论文 大小：100 KB 日期：2007-06-21 8、 (英语系毕业论文)中西酒店文化比较及探讨 摘 要在经济蓬勃发展的今天，旅游业风风火火地发展起来了，作为与旅游业相配套的酒店业也相应的完善起来，且更加趋于国际化。中国已经入世，这更给中国的酒店业带来一个新的发展契机，但世界上酒店发展规模空前，...
Western novels in comparison First, Western novels in the history of the development of Western novels are based on myths and legends of its origin. In ancient times, science developed, out of fear of nature, the working people out of the imagination is the key to many of the world "God", describing the personification of God is a myth; who will describe the deified, that is legend. China opened the world's Pan story, the story of San Juan Five Emperors, the West Greek mythology, Roman mythology, Norse mythology, and so on are all typical works. East and West, the original novel, is closely linked with the history, as historical records complement the event. China Pre-Qin prose in the fable, the Han dynasty in the history books, biographies, the Wei and Jin Zhi, Zhi-person novel; the West of ancient Babylon, "the United States and Ji Jia disabilities epic", in ancient Greece, "Homer's epic," "Aesop's Fables "And so on, fall into this category, fiction, novels such novels have been about the characteristics of fiction, it is still not the literary creation, directly from the private collection record, so this type of fiction plot is relatively simple, writing rough comparison. Ban Gu said, "On the Street Lane words, hearsay are made of" is a novel kind of accurate assessment of the image. China's Tang Dynasty, the novel is only from history and literature become a creativity. Tang Dynasty culture has developed, the author's ideas are more open, the legend came into being at this time, Li Zhaowei "Liu Yi Chuan", Po Chu's "Everlasting Regret," Wolf's "Everlasting Regret Chuan" And so on, are made in accordance with the creation of the legend. For the fictional story of the Tang Dynasty more emphasis on imagination and literary talent, not just the history of the nature of things, but as the history of Zhi Zhi who is also the novel did not stop. The Legend of the Song Dynasty to the novel on a gradual decline, which followed the rise of this so that after processing will become a scholar so many novel and Romance novels such as "Romance of the Three Kingdoms", "Outlaws of the Marsh", "Journey to the West." The author of such novels is the use of private creative and re-created to describe the circumstances of the touching scenes of brilliant and vivid active in shaping the character known, there are obvious story-telling style of language. Here by the redevelopment, it will become an independent literary creation rather than things to come together with the civil process, the representative of this type is the "Golden Lotus", it was an open and ordinary life on the road, the reality is that literature has come a long way The development of the latter's "A Dream of Red Mansions" in ancient China Geng Shiba realism to the novels of the summit. "54" after the novelist began to learn from China's western fiction writing practices, and gradually out a new path. Western novels, is the "Renaissance" after the rapid development of mature. The development of the Middle Ages novel near-stagnation in the West, 14, the end of the century "Renaissance" to overthrow the literature of the Church of control, 15, appeared in the western end of the century to promote freedom of thought and the liberation of personality in order to describe the reality of life and portray characters from all walks of life for the content of the Humanist novels, is to tie in with this type of novel anti-feudal Europe at the time of arising at the same time it also set the novel in the West to human describing the tone of the main things. Jiaqiu Italy's "Decameron", Spain's Cervantes "Don Quixote" is the kind of representative works of fiction. The resulting novel is a classical, elegant favor of its national language to standardize the writing of this novel in 17th century France's most well-developed. As a note on behalf of Corneille's "Cid" neoclassical story of the rise of Western novels have been a language substantially improved. The beginning of the 18th century to promote popular science knowledge, enlightenment of the public consciousness for the purpose of the Enlightenment novels, of which there are relatively well-known German Goethe's "Faust", the United Kingdom Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" and the Swift "Gulliver's Travels" and so on, this type of novel to the emergence of the bourgeois revolution at the time to mold public opinion. In the 19th century, romantic fiction, realistic novels and critical realism novel turn to occupy the leading position in the field of fiction. Romantic novels, such as France Victor Hugo's "Notre Dame de Paris", Goethe's "juvenile Witt of trouble" and so on, imaginative, unusual ideas, language and imaginative, strong feelings. Efforts to reflect the reality of the novel is the essence of life, and depict typical life of a typical phenomenon in the United Kingdom Dickens, France and Germany are of such novels as a representative of the writer. Critical realism novels exposed the efforts of the decadent feudal system and capitalist society, the dark, in-depth criticism of the reality of evil, France Balzac and Maupassant, the United Kingdom of Charlotte, Bronte,. Russia's Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, the United States of a large number of writers such as Mark Twain's works belong to this category. Value today, the three novels in the West is still the most important of the three types of literary fiction. East-West novel on the history of the development of more or less the case. Second, the characteristics of the novel in the West In addition to the basic characteristics of the novel, the story of the West also have their own characteristics are as follows: 1, the traditional Chinese novel attention to the characters, language and the details of the description, in contradiction to the conflict to display the images, but the character of a single, small changes in the absence of the main flu. Western novels are more people pay attention to the psychological description, stressed that mining figure in the subconscious mind, good at writing full, the changes in the strong sense of the main characters. Again, "coach Lin Feng Snow Mountain Temple" in the figure is only through dialogue and action leads to contradictions and conflicts, but Anna Karenina Wogui before a series of conflicts only with his description of the psychological will be able to express their clear; for poetry in Lin In the performance of her literary talent, and Paul with his inner monologue of the ideal; Zhang Zhong-Yong has only the character, but Jane Eyre's character is the brave, strong, warm, kind-hearted, and so many of the character and rubbing and Cheng's. In short, people in the area described in the West has its own unique features. 2, China compared with Western fiction novel plot twists and turns more and more complete story. Plot twists and turns, the story is complete fiction China's unique traditional arts. The Wei and Jin Zhi Zhi people on the novel twists and turns with vivid characteristics. Tang legend in the layout of many of the famous, magnificent anomaly, rigorous and clever, dramatic plot development. The contents of the Ming and Qing Dynasties novels scattered irregular, undulating waves, Cuoluoyouzhi, careful structure, an integral whole. "A Dream of Red Mansions", everywhere She Fu, Hui turning point, the story of Jia's best writing. Western plot in respect of the outstanding works, although there are many, but it can not be compared with the Chinese novel. 3, concise and lively Chinese language novel, rich in content and rich Western novels. Chinese folk artists absorbed the novel language, at the same time inherited the fine traditions of ancient prose, often a few words will be able to outline the incident or the people. Western novels in the author includes a broad range of knowledge, involve the community in many ways, so rich in content and rich people can gain knowledge in many areas. Engels said he was in Balzac's novel about 19th century France's domestic situation than he received any reports are more. Western novels have different characteristics, and also in the West different aesthetic concepts to a certain extent related. 4, Western novels have been the rule of the feudal culture of oppression destroyed. Chinese feudal culture makes the development of the novel is extremely difficult, Ming and Qing Dynasties more people to write stories for shame, so many great writers living, creating the conditions are not covered, many of the great works of authors who do not know. Western novels in the feudal culture makes almost the whole of the Middle Ages in the development of extremely slow, and many talented writers were forced to church services, wrote some of the religious nature of the article dry hole. Third, Western novels in the future prospects for the development of End of the Qing Dynasty, China and the West have begun to understand the other side of the system, the advantages of the novel in the West have been constantly learn from each other. Of course, due to historical reasons, the Chinese side of the draw a little more. To this day, the novelist in the West efforts are still two researchers in the novel's artistic charm, although the different languages of each other's appreciation of the arts to a certain extent, but the United States are interlinked. We have every reason to believe that in the near future, the novel art in the West will ultimately learn from each other and integrate, develop and reach new artistic heights. References: "Foreign Literature" Shanghai Translation Publishing House Zhou Xu Liang "Contemporary Literature election," Zhang Zhong, such as Beijing University Publishing House "Chinese literature history of the development of" Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House Liu Jie "Literary History of Europe" People's Literature Publishing House Yangzhou Han Wu Da-yuan Zhao Rui radish "Three high school language textbook used by the five dates of the" People's Education Press仅供参考，请自借鉴。希望对您有帮助。
由于学习语言专业，接触到不少外籍教师，有来自北美洲，澳洲和西欧的。和其中一些教师有比较多的书信来往，相处也不错。他们常常会说“我们是好朋友”。然而，对于朋友之间的友谊，中西方人却有着很大的理解上和态度上的差异。多数中国人很难理解西方人所谓好朋友的概念。尽管随着我国的对外开放政策，越来越多的西方文化涌入中国，更多的人渐渐懂得了哪些该问，哪些不该说，以尊重朋友的隐私，但是由于受到长期文化传统的浸透，双方对于保持友谊的做法上差异很大。 例如，在我们这里，一个人会很爽快的答应他的好朋友陪他去购物的邀请，即便他手头上有一些事情要做。好朋友之间会长期分享同甘共苦的感受。袒露各自的秘密。而在西方人看来，你完全可让一位朋友和你一起做某件事，但是你不要期待他会放下他在做的事，去陪你去做类似于购物那种不是很紧迫的事。即使是非常好的朋友也应该接受对方说‘不’，只要对方能够给出理由。其间的独立性是显而易见的。在西方，居住地的搬迁，工作的更换，学业的结束，婚姻的变化等等，都有可能使得深厚的友谊发生改变。这也说明他们的友谊较多地建立在互相经常性的来往上。一旦这种频繁的交往变的稀少或停止，那么他们的友谊就会凋谢并消亡。这和我们传统中所说的‘两情若到久长时，又岂在朝朝暮暮’相去甚远。中国人比较多的是希望良好的友谊能够永远保持下去，直到一生。然而，西方人在一个时间内会有很多好朋友，但是这种友谊往往同特定的条件与情况有联系。一旦情况发生改变，朋友也就发生改变。他们更多的是独立性，而非依赖性。他们不喜欢一方过多的依赖另一方。在中国，我们常常可以看到一个人对于他人在经济上经常性的资助，而在西方这可能更多被看作为让被资助方产生依赖性，也不符合他们对于个人品质培养的原则。而在中国，朋友间更多是需要得到具体实在的帮助。比如，找一份不错工作，请一位好的医生，职务的提升等等。西方人会因为对朋友带来哪怕是非常小的不便而向他致歉。在十分亲近的朋友间也使用很有礼貌的语言。而在我们这里，往往相反。比如，朋友不言谢。不必客套等等。 所有这些差异都有其深远的文化背景与传统影响。我们只能互相尊重，互相理解。了解中西方之间在观念，思维，习俗，人际交往上的差异会有助于彼此建立起更良好的关系。
西方相对于东方文化起步比较晚,但在他们内部之间,比如:南欧和北欧,西欧和东欧,就是英国,德国内部也有着异处,然而体现着本质差异的无疑还是东西方文化间的差异。龙和凤在中国,龙是图腾的形象,在图腾发展的进一步神圣化之后,形成了龙,凤等具有多种动物特征的综合性图腾形象, 在我国古代传说中，龙是一种能兴云降雨神异的动物。因而,在我国龙凤指才能优异的人，龙虎比喻豪杰志士。“龙”在成语中也被广泛的利用，如、“龙飞凤舞、藏龙卧虎”等。汉民族素以“龙的传人”自称，以“龙的子孙”自豪。我国的传说中，凤凰是一种神异的动物，与龙、龟、麒麟合称四灵。凤在中国还指优良女子,还有太平昌盛之意,旧时，凤也为圣德。"凤毛麟角"指珍贵而不可多得用来比喻有圣德的人。中华民族是一个渴望安定祥和的民族，因此，就想象龙、凤是一种福音。从文化的角度上看，西方长期受宗教的影响，我国却在相当长的时间内受封建思想的统治。西方人信仰上帝，与上帝作对就是过错，就是罪恶；而我国人民信仰上天，佛祖，祈求上天能给我们带来好运，神把龙作为自身的代表降到人间，是至高无上的象征。东西思维方式的冲突在欧洲工作生活了26年，现在是中国驻德国大使的卢秋田老师说一个德国人和一个法国人在临死以前，你问法国人，你死前最大的愿望是什么？法国人的回答是我想喝一杯最好的香槟酒。又问德国人，你死前有什么愿望？他说如果我还有力气的话，我想再作一次报告。这就是德国人，喜欢作报告。我想这也许就是思维的不同,这还只是在西方内部,要说到东西方的差异,我想就更大了.对于思维方式的特点,主要有四点:第一,思维的广泛性.我曾看到过这样一篇文章, 一个美国人给中国人写信，中国人看美国人的信，一看就发火,因为美国人在信的开头，将自己的要求放在最前面，开门见山，后面才讲些客套话。中国人为了保持心理平衡, 把美国人的来信先看后面。而美国人看中国人的信，开始越看越糊涂，不知道对方要说明什么问题，到信的末尾有几句才是他要说的问题,前面说的都是客套话等等。 美国人读中国人的信也是倒过来看。这种不同的写法反映出不同的思维方式。第二，民族思维方式形成以后，有相对的稳定性。我们中国人原来最好的问候就是：“您吃了吗？”知道为什么吗？是因为咱们过去温饱没有解决。以后咱们再见面就说：“撑着了吗？打嗝了吗？”，我觉得咱中国人应该向英国人学学，英国人见面打招呼都是“Hello！”Hello完了之后就问天气怎么样？“你觉得今天天气怎么样？”“我觉得今天天气不错啊！这真是难得一个晴天。”2008年要开奥运会了，肯定很多外国人要来。来了之后咱得知道人家外国人是怎么想的，跟咱们是不是一样。你对他好，他不一定领情。比方说尊老爱幼，尊老，要按咱们来讲，你要看见马路上一个老奶奶，颤颤悠悠地拿八十多个包袱在那儿正过马路呢，你不过去帮帮忙的话,你还是人吗？所以你一定要过去帮忙，过去后说：“老大娘，您要过马路吗？来，把包给我，我替您扛过去。”给老大娘搀过去以后，老大娘一定非常高兴：“谢谢你小伙子，谢谢你。你叫什么名字？”“不要问我的名字了，如果您想知道我的名字，我叫雷锋。”一般都这样。可要是外国人就不是这样了，你看到一个外国老太太过马路，你过去了说：“Hello，天气不错，我替你搬。”那不行，老太太一定不高兴，倒不是因为她担心你抢她东西，关键是她不服老，如果你这样做就等于说她给人感觉她是一个老人。我记得我在加拿大住的时候有一邻居91岁了，走路直晃悠。那天刮四级大风，他拿了两包，我心说我一定得帮帮忙去，咱也让加拿大人知道，除了白求恩红遍我们中国之外，我们雷锋也能红遍加拿大。我就去了，说：“Heloo”他说：“NO，不用帮，不用帮。”我说这老大爷怎么这样啊？不让帮忙。其实,他们外国人就是这个习惯。再如救死扶伤。如果我们看见有人掉到河里了，“噗通”一下，你得赶紧下去救人，可是在外国这样就不行。西方人就是这样，你甭救我，你千万别来救我，你救我还是给我添麻烦？你说这人怎么想的呀？他的思维是什么逻辑？他这种思维逻辑就是：你是想来救我，可你受过专业训练吗？你会游泳吗？你不会游泳你来救我，最后你也搭进去了赖谁呀？必须得要专业人士，你要想救我打110啊，打119啊。我这么一想,可能也对，过去我看有个报纸说，有个人根本不会游泳就毅然决然地跳了下去，最后两个人同时牺牲了。其实这样也真是有点冤得慌，你倒是找个会游泳的下去啊。咱们中国人和西方人喝水也不一样 。我喝什么水呀？冰水，一饮而尽！可是以前咱们中国人对客人最热情的举动就是给滚烫的热水，过去斯诺到中国来采访，他在日记中说：当我踏上延安土地的时候，我才知道我们和东方人是多么的不同。为什么呀？他见着毛主席的时候，记录员说：“您喝口水吧”，他正想喝口水呢，结果给端上来一杯滚烫的热水。斯诺说，这水要在我们家能烫死一头猪啊。但是他还得捧着，就是喝不了啊，最后只好问有井水没有。咱们和西方人使用的生活工具也不一样。咱们中国人喜欢用筷子，老外就觉得中国人奇怪，拿两根树枝就能吃饭了，而且是能切、能剁、能叉、能碾、能搅、什么都能做。他不理解，他觉得中国人真聪明，手特别灵活。所以老外到中国吃饭一般最怕的就是用筷子，每次吃完饭手都抽筋，因为手实在是太累了。不过咱们要吃日本饭就惨了，日本人吃饭得跪着，满桌饭菜多香啊，可是每次我都吃不饱。为什么？我得跪着吃，没吃两道菜呢，我觉得我下身已经麻木了，要再吃下去非死那儿不可。你有没有发现日本人的筷子头是尖的。知道为什么吗？这是日本武士发明的，过去吃饭的时候不能带武器，他们就把筷子给削尖了，然后在谈判时候用，先吃着谈，谈不投机了拿筷子扎你。这就是当初的武器！那么西方就更直接了，直接把刀叉带进餐厅了。先拿着，你别看正在那儿吃饭，不行的话直接就扔过去，拿刀“咔嚓”就砍了你。我们早已经把食物进化了，而西方人还处在刀耕火种的年代，他们还在吃生肉，还在吃生菜。像咱们做的菜，比方说葱爆羊肉、糖拌西红柿、鱼香肉丝、素炒芥兰啊……多好吃 。可西方人不行，把菜也就洗吧洗吧，放一块儿，然后再搁点汁，告诉你这叫蔬菜沙拉。咱们主食是馒头，人家主食是土豆，西方人把土豆煮熟了之后剥了皮，蘸着盐，就算是大餐了。如果哪天我那威请您吃西餐大餐，主菜是土豆蘸咸盐，您一定把我骂死。咱们中国人就不是这样了，咱们把土豆改良了，比如说做个青椒土豆丝、酸辣土豆丝、土豆炖蘑菇、土豆炖牛肉……总之能够把一种食品的作法发挥到极致。为什么咱们和西方差距这么大？首先我们长的就不一样，我们是黄皮肤，他们是白皮肤，咱们眼睛是黑色的，他们是什么色都有——黑的、蓝的、白的、花的。我想这是最明显的一个区别，但是究其根本，我认为还是因为磁场造成的。据科学家研究，水池子蓄满水时把塞子拔掉，你就会发现水在我们这半球它是顺时针方向消失，要到了南半球它就逆时针方向消失。没发现吧？自己蓄一池子水试试吧！这方向就是磁场在起作用，同样也造成大脑磁场的不同，所以咱们看待问题也是不一样的。比方说咱们做饭搁盐说搁盐少许，大家都知道搁多少，手大抓半斤，手小抓一两。老外就不懂，少许是多少？他得量，所以很多外国人的厨房，就是一个实验室，锅、碗、瓢、盆不是很多，各种天平、计量工具倒是一大堆，所以他们学理工科的人比较多一点。他们认为做饭是一件很痛苦的事情，因此到今天他们还在吃油炸食品，他们永远吃不到松鼠鱼。如果他们要做松鼠鱼的话，4天未必能做出来，他得且研究呢。其实这就是一种观念上的问题。再说约会。咱们中国人一般表示友谊、表示对你的尊重都要提前来，有的时候说:“我在这已经等了你3天了，我终于今天见到你了，哎哟等了我三天呐”。可是在国外都是这样，咱俩9点约会，往往那大钟刚敲到9点，老外噌就出来了：“Hello，我准时到了 。”一看表，一秒都不差。你要跟一个德国人约会，你说提前3天就到了，他一定觉得你神经病！再说咱们熟悉的喝酒 。比如说老外要喝酒，都是拿瓶XO给自己倒，然后祝你健康！祝你幸福！祝你怎么怎么样！然后自己把自己没一会儿就给撂到了，一般喝酒时老外都属于自虐，没事儿就把自己给办到地上去。中国人不是这样，他是为了办别人。每次喝酒都说：“来，再干一杯！”一下喝三杯，深水炸弹什么的，一般都是头三尾四，或者说这鱼头可冲着你呢，你得喝，不喝可不够哥们！至于合同这事儿咱们再单说，来干！咣咣咣咣！最后把这个人给办倒了，如果他自己也晕了，也是在办别人的过程当中不小心被另外一个人给办了。而老外一般很少有互相劝酒的，都是劝自己喝酒，这是一个本质的区别。咱们再说这玩儿。你看一群老外抢一个球，那一定是欧洲人——踢足球。看俩人在那儿较劲，你一拳、我一拳一定要把对方给干到地下，那是美国人——拳击。两个人不吱声皱着眉头在那儿玩儿桥牌，动智商的，这个一般也不符合我们亚洲人的习惯。那我们喜欢玩儿什么呀？玩儿麻将啊！麻将才符合我们的精神，才符合我们的智慧。咱们玩儿麻将时一般都是这样，四个人在一起玩儿麻将，一般都是盯着上家、看着下家、防着对家，我胡不了，你们谁也甭想胡，我就是死活不点炮。所以这个就是玩儿的不同。有一个电影叫做《刮痧》看过吧？其实刮痧是我们中国非常好的一个治病的办法，刮刮皮肤，什么病都好了，只不过会在皮肤上留下一些斑斑点点的血印子。美国人就想不明白，觉得是虐待孩子，这看着让人生气。王姬演那个《北京人在纽约》看了吧？中草药，他老公愣说是树根子，喝着苦，废话！中药能不苦吗？良药苦口利于病！你UNDERSTAND吗？可是老外就是不明白呀，所以要取消你的抚养权，因为你给孩子喝巫术的东西。什么叫巫术？其实是对我们中医不了解。还有香水，咱们中国人也想掸香水，其实错了。千万别跟外国人学，因为外国人身上有严重的体臭，所以他必须掩饰体臭才掸香水。我们中国人起码是正常的，所以我们根本不需要掸香水，这点您一定要记住了。如果您要是看见两个俄罗斯人打架，多半是因为他们喝多了；如果你看见两个印度人打架，多半是因为他们姓氏不同；如果你看见两个以色列人打架，多半是因为他们政治信仰的不同；如果你看见两个东方人在打架，80％是争着结帐：今天的费用我来结帐,我看谁敢和我抢……。
对于朋友之间的友谊，中西方人却有着很大的理解上和态度上的差异。多数中国人很难理解西方人所谓好朋友的概念。尽管随着我国的对外开放政策，越来越多的西方文化涌入中国，更多的人渐渐懂得了哪些该问，哪些不该说，以尊重朋友的隐私，但是由于受到长期文化传统的浸透，双方对于保持友谊的做法上差异很大。 例如，在我们这里，一个人会很爽快的答应他的好朋友陪他去购物的邀请，即便他手头上有一些事情要做。好朋友之间会长期分享同甘共苦的感受。袒露各自的秘密。而在西方人看来，你完全可让一位朋友和你一起做某件事，但是你不要期待他会放下他在做的事，去陪你去做类似于购物那种不是很紧迫的事。即使是非常好的朋友也应该接受对方说‘不’，只要对方能够给出理由。其间的独立性是显而易见的。在西方，居住地的搬迁，工作的更换，学业的结束，婚姻的变化等等，都有可能使得深厚的友谊发生改变。这也说明他们的友谊较多地建立在互相经常性的来往上。一旦这种频繁的交往变的稀少或停止，那么他们的友谊就会凋谢并消亡。这和我们传统中所说的‘两情若到久长时，又岂在朝朝暮暮’相去甚远。中国人比较多的是希望良好的友谊能够永远保持下去，直到一生。然而，西方人在一个时间内会有很多好朋友，但是这种友谊往往同特定的条件与情况有联系。一旦情况发生改变，朋友也就发生改变。他们更多的是独立性，而非依赖性。他们不喜欢一方过多的依赖另一方。在中国，我们常常可以看到一个人对于他人在经济上经常性的资助，而在西方这可能更多被看作为让被资助方产生依赖性，也不符合他们对于个人品质培养的原则。而在中国，朋友间更多是需要得到具体实在的帮助。比如，找一份不错工作，请一位好的医生，职务的提升等等。西方人会因为对朋友带来哪怕是非常小的不便而向他致歉。在十分亲近的朋友间也使用很有礼貌的语言。而在我们这里，往往相反。比如，朋友不言谢。不必客套等等。 所有这些差异都有其深远的文化背景与传统影响。我们只能互相尊重，互相理解。了解中西方之间在观念，思维，习俗，人际交往上的差异会有助于彼此建立起更良好的关系。
由于学习语言专业，接触到不少外籍教师，有来自北美洲，澳洲和西欧的。和其中一些教师有比较多的书信来往，相处也不错。他们常常会说“我们是好朋友”。然而，对于朋友之间的友谊，中西方人却有着很大的理解上和态度上的差异。多数中国人很难理解西方人所谓好朋友的概念。尽管随着我国的对外开放政策，越来越多的西方文化涌入中国，更多的人渐渐懂得了哪些该问，哪些不该说，以尊重朋友的隐私，但是由于受到长期文化传统的浸透，双方对于保持友谊的做法上差异很大。 例如，在我们这里，一个人会很爽快的答应他的好朋友陪他去购物的邀请，即便他手头上有一些事情要做。好朋友之间会长期分享同甘共苦的感受。袒露各自的秘密。而在西方人看来，你完全可让一位朋友和你一起做某件事，但是你不要期待他会放下他在做的事，去陪你去做类似于购物那种不是很紧迫的事。即使是非常好的朋友也应该接受对方说‘不’，只要对方能够给出理由。其间的独立性是显而易见的。在西方，居住地的搬迁，工作的更换，学业的结束，婚姻的变化等等，都有可能使得深厚的友谊发生改变。这也说明他们的友谊较多地建立在互相经常性的来往上。一旦这种频繁的交往变的稀少或停止，那么他们的友谊就会凋谢并消亡。这和我们传统中所说的‘两情若到久长时，又岂在朝朝暮暮’相去甚远。中国人比较多的是希望良好的友谊能够永远保持下去，直到一生。然而，西方人在一个时间内会有很多好朋友，但是这种友谊往往同特定的条件与情况有联系。一旦情况发生改变，朋友也就发生改变。他们更多的是独立性，而非依赖性。他们不喜欢一方过多的依赖另一方。在中国，我们常常可以看到一个人对于他人在经济上经常性的资助，而在西方这可能更多被看作为让被资助方产生依赖性，也不符合他们对于个人品质培养的原则。而在中国，朋友间更多是需要得到具体实在的帮助。比如，找一份不错工作，请一位好的医生，职务的提升等等。西方人会因为对朋友带来哪怕是非常小的不便而向他致歉。在十分亲近的朋友间也使用很有礼貌的语言。而在我们这里，往往相反。比如，朋友不言谢。不必客套等等。所有这些差异都有其深远的文化背景与传统影响。我们只能互相尊重，互相理解。了解中西方之间在观念，思维，习俗，人际交往上的差异会有助于彼此建立起更良好的关系。 虽然亚洲人和西方人对友谊有不同的看法。但是人们不需要因为这些差异而裹足不前，不与西方人为友。 回想一下，在公共汽车上或是餐厅里，坐在外国人旁边的情形。当时你或许期望自己知道要怎么和他搭讪；也许你因为太紧张而不敢尝试；或者你不知道要如何开始与不同文化的人士作朋友。中国人和西方人对待友谊的方式的确有很大不同。其实，跟一些外国人交往，会发现大有收获。 在开始和西方人聊天时，不要稳态隐私的问题。例如，年龄和薪水。还有，最好也不要评论对方的外表。由于他们的外表和身边所有的中国人都不一样，他们也许会感到不自在。“你真的很美”之类的赞美之词也可能令他们不舒服。与刚刚结识的外国人，谈谈家庭、兴趣、工作或教育，一定不会错的。有关他们的故乡以及旅游，也是很好的话题。 亚洲人与西方人对友谊的期待也不相同。在西方文化里，通常和特定的活动有所关联：西方人和这个朋友打篮球，和另外一朋友散步，和另一群朋友看电影 …… 许多西方人士很注重他们的个人隐私。如果你不被希望参与他们的某项活动，不要感到惊讶，这对于担心朋友会孤单的中国人来说，可能觉得有点奇怪。中国人常常期望好朋友能给些忠告，并且在各方面都被关照。但从西方朋友身上很难得到如此关怀。因为大部分的西方人很重视独立自主，如果别人觉得他不能照顾自己，对他们来说是一种侮辱，他们会假设你也有同样感受。 当然，不能一概而论，也许不能适用在所有西方人身上。接触的每个人对友谊都有自己的一套看法。当你感到迷惑时，不用怀疑或担心，直截了当的询问。西方人对中国人的文化同样也有很多问题，或许他么也在犹豫该不该问呢。 敞开心胸真诚对待朋友，尊重彼此的差异。你们所建立的友谊可能会成为终生受用不尽的宝藏！ 美国的年轻人从1935年起，就把每年8月的第一个周日定为国际友情日。这一天属于聚会和友情，他们一起分享工作、生活中的点点滴滴，诉说平时不曾说过的心情故事，分享彼此珍藏在心底最深的感触。而如今，友谊日也随着中西方文化的交流，开始被不少中国人接受，尤其是在上海的一些外企，在西方文化的带动下，不少公司都开始在友情节前的周五给员工一个小时的假期，让自己的员工联络各自的朋友。这一个小时里，送出的也许只是一句简单的问候，或者一杯共享的百利，但却可以让朋友们知道彼此的牵挂。
中西友谊观对比人处在社会中,不能独自生活，必须和社会接触，必须结交朋友，须得到他人的赞同，须得到别人的关怀。因此，朋友在每个人的日常生活中甚至每个人的生命中都扮演了一个举足轻重的角色。对友谊的需求是全人类普遍存在的现象,无论对于中国人还是美国人，朋友都是非常重要的人际关系，正如我们中国人的一句友谊格言所说：“没有真挚朋友的人，是真正孤独的人！”美国人对待友谊的看法也有类似的格言：“Without a friend, the world is a wilderness.（没有朋友，世界成了荒野）。”由此可见，朋友对于任何人而言有多么地重要。但由于东西方文化的差异，在对待交朋结友这件事上，中国人的友谊观与美国人的友谊观存在着明显的差异。今天，我最主要从以下六个方面来谈谈中美友谊观中存在的差异：一、从定义看新华字典中对于朋友的解释为“同学，志同道合的人或特指恋人”，由此可知，中国人内心里对“朋友”的界定非常明确，内心有一把非常清楚的尺。而美国人的“朋友”概念却相对宽松。在牛津高阶英汉双解词典第七版中对“朋友”一词的定义为“喜欢的人、支持者，不是敌人，讨厌的人”等，由此我们可以看出，对于友谊美国人相比较中国人而言更加开放更加随性。有个留学生曾经概括说：“当一个美国人称某人为‘朋友’，大多数情形下他只是在表示礼貌友好，而不是真的要跟他建立一种友谊。”二、“友谊”持续时间在中国，友谊往往是坚固、稳定甚至是终身的。就算是分别两地，朋友之间往往都会相互联系，或许是通过打电话或是聚会等，两者的友谊并不会随着时间的流逝而消逝。外国人对友谊并不一定追求“永恒”，美式友谊就有些“速溶咖啡”的味道了，朋友交得快，忘得也快。美国是全世界流动性最大的一个国家，这种流动性使得美国人的人际关系相对淡薄。美国人对朋友的热情很快能从一个人转移到另一个人。因此，在美国，朋友之间如果一段时间内不联系、不见面，他们的友谊就会迅速地枯萎甚至死亡。三、“友谊”延伸的范围及领域在中国人看来，朋友间的亲密程度是较高的，朋友之间往往会形成一种互相依靠的合作关系。美国人之间的友谊，大多数局限在某个领域，而不会自然而然地延伸到彼此生活、工作的其他领域之中。大多数美国人认为友谊需要保持一定的距离。因此，和老外做朋友，有一种“君子之交淡如水”的感觉。四、交友目的的差异在中国，交朋结友本身就是一种乐趣，很少有人从一开始就想从对方那里获取利益。中国人交朋友往往建立在有共同语言、志趣相投的基础之上，交朋友的目的相对单纯并且感性。在美国，实用主义是美国人的独特信念，这种实用主义自然而然地反映在美国人的友谊观上，美国人找工作时的一句名言“重要的不是你会什么，而是你认识谁”这反映了美国人“交朋结友”，其意在扩大自己的交际圈，为自己未来的发展预留机遇和空间，以及增加自己的收入方面所发挥的举足轻重的作用。五、建立及维系友谊方式的差异（一）建立友谊的差异中国人对建立友谊非常谨慎，也就是第一道心理防线是非常高的，所以当他们和陌生人见面时往往比较谨慎，彼此之间要接触相当长的一段时间，交流到了一定的深度，摸清彼此的习性和脾气，发现彼此是志趣相投或是共同经历“磨难”之后才会在心里承认彼此是朋友，才会看重这段友谊。如“路遥知马力，日久见人心”。在中国的传统文化中，友谊意味着朋友间一生的信约，是要慢慢培养的，因为友谊一旦形成就终身相随。中国人所交的朋友必须是志同道合，兴趣相投，性格相近，否则就不能为真正的朋友，只能算是点头之交，泛泛之辈。