飞翔的等待
Chinese and Western cultural differences in the performance of every aspect of daily life from the greeting 、 term diet and cultural differences in the way of thinking in the abstract, such as differences everywhere, from the West focus on the following colors to express the difference between Chinese and Western cultural differences in areas such as a wedding set. First, in the West to express the color difference Different colors in different languages is not expressed in the same way. The representative of China in a sense, the West has a meaning that even the "color" to understand the meaning of the contrary. (A) red (red) Whether in China or in the English-speaking countries, often in red and festive celebrations or day-related. Calendar, red font used these days, therefore, red letter day: refers to the "Day" or "happy occasion." It also refers to the red "liabilities" or "loss" because people are always negative in red to register. So there are these phrases: red figure deficit in the red loss In common with the Chinese "red" words, translated into English, may not necessarily use the "red" for example: brown sugar brown sugar red wine red wine (B) yellow Yellow in English and Chinese in the extended meaning of the differences are considerable. In English, yellow can be said that the "timid, cowardly, despicable," meaning, for example: a yellow dog despicable, cowardly people a yellow livered coward Chinese yellow symbol of the term is sometimes vulgar, vulgar and obscene, indecent indecency means, such as yellow film, erotica, yellow CD, and so on. These in the name of "yellow" in English and "yellow" has nothing to do. However, in another English word blue is the color used to indicate the kind of meaning in Chinese, such as the blue jokes (dirty joke), blue films (yellow film). Second, the cultural differences in Western wedding First of all, in Western wedding culture and the first in the West in thinking about the differences: the Chinese people more conservative, like excitement, more old-fashioned thinking, so in the history of China for thousands of years the entire wedding customs did not change much. The thinking in the West is more open to the requirements of the wedding will be lower, they will be the climax of the wedding in the church: the sacred as the "wedding march" into the red carpet, Jiao Mei's father, the bride linked hands Rose walked slowly to the groom, the bride's father, daughter to the groom's hand on hand, her daughter's life will be entrusted to the groom, all eyes followed the couple, filled with well-being in their face. Second, the result of cultural differences wedding in the West because the West in a different religion. China is mainly Buddhist, but the West is mainly Christian. Therefore, the Western wedding is to be held in the church and the priest is Zhuhun Ren. China's traditional customs of the most important part of the Bai Tiandi is, the worship heaven and earth even after the ceremony has become.中西方文化差异表现在方方面面,从日常生活的打招呼用语、饮食文化等差异到思维方式等抽象方面的差异无所不在,下面着重从中西方颜色表达的差异,中西方婚礼文化差异等方面阐述。 一、中西方颜色表达的差异 不同颜色在不同语言中表达的方式并不一样。在中国代表一种意义,在西方又表示一种涵义,甚至对“颜色”的涵义理解恰恰相反。(一)red(红色)无论是在英语国家还是在中国,红色往往与庆祝活动或喜庆日子有关。日历中,这些日子常用红色字体,因此,red letter day:指的是“纪念日”或“喜庆的日子”。红色还指“负债”或“亏损”,因为人们总是用红笔登记负数。于是就有了这些词组:red figure赤字 in the red亏损汉语中常用的带“红”字的词语,翻译成英语,可不一定用“red”例如:红糖brown sugar 红酒red wine (二) yellow黄色在英语和汉语中的引申含义差别比较大。英语中,yellow可以表示“胆小、卑怯、卑鄙”的意思,例如:a yellow dog 可鄙的人,卑鄙的人a yellow livered 胆小鬼汉语中黄色一词有时象征低级趣味、色情庸俗、下流猥亵的意思,如黄色电影、黄色书刊、黄色光碟等等。这些名称中的“黄”与英语中的“yellow”无关。然而,英语中另一个颜色词blue却常用来表示汉语中这类意思,如blue jokes(下流的玩笑), blue films(黄色电影)等。 二、中西方婚礼文化差异 首先,中西方婚礼文化差异首先和中西方人在思维方面的差异有关:中国人比较保守,喜欢热闹,思维较古板,所以在中国历史几千年的时间里整个婚礼的习俗并没有多大的变化。而西方人的思想则比较开放,对于婚礼的要求也比较低,他们婚礼的高潮则是在教堂中:随着神圣的《婚礼进行曲》步入鲜红的地毯,娇美的新娘挽着父亲手捧玫瑰慢慢向新郎走去,新娘的父亲将女儿的手放在新郎的手上,将女儿的一生托付给新郎,所有人的目光注视着这对新人,幸福洋溢在他们的脸上。其次,造成中西方婚礼文化差异的原因是中西方不同的宗教。中国是以佛教为主,而西方则是基督教为主的。所以西方的婚礼是在教堂中举行而主婚人则是神甫。中方的传统婚俗中的最重要环节就是拜天地,拜了天地以后就算是礼成了。
Joanrry琼
Western novels in comparison First, Western novels in the history of the development of Western novels are based on myths and legends of its origin. In ancient times, science developed, out of fear of nature, the working people out of the imagination is the key to many of the world "God", describing the personification of God is a myth; who will describe the deified, that is legend. China opened the world's Pan story, the story of San Juan Five Emperors, the West Greek mythology, Roman mythology, Norse mythology, and so on are all typical works. East and West, the original novel, is closely linked with the history, as historical records complement the event. China Pre-Qin prose in the fable, the Han dynasty in the history books, biographies, the Wei and Jin Zhi, Zhi-person novel; the West of ancient Babylon, "the United States and Ji Jia disabilities epic", in ancient Greece, "Homer's epic," "Aesop's Fables "And so on, fall into this category, fiction, novels such novels have been about the characteristics of fiction, it is still not the literary creation, directly from the private collection record, so this type of fiction plot is relatively simple, writing rough comparison. Ban Gu said, "On the Street Lane words, hearsay are made of" is a novel kind of accurate assessment of the image. China's Tang Dynasty, the novel is only from history and literature become a creativity. Tang Dynasty culture has developed, the author's ideas are more open, the legend came into being at this time, Li Zhaowei "Liu Yi Chuan", Po Chu's "Everlasting Regret," Wolf's "Everlasting Regret Chuan" And so on, are made in accordance with the creation of the legend. For the fictional story of the Tang Dynasty more emphasis on imagination and literary talent, not just the history of the nature of things, but as the history of Zhi Zhi who is also the novel did not stop. The Legend of the Song Dynasty to the novel on a gradual decline, which followed the rise of this so that after processing will become a scholar so many novel and Romance novels such as "Romance of the Three Kingdoms", "Outlaws of the Marsh", "Journey to the West." The author of such novels is the use of private creative and re-created to describe the circumstances of the touching scenes of brilliant and vivid active in shaping the character known, there are obvious story-telling style of language. Here by the redevelopment, it will become an independent literary creation rather than things to come together with the civil process, the representative of this type is the "Golden Lotus", it was an open and ordinary life on the road, the reality is that literature has come a long way The development of the latter's "A Dream of Red Mansions" in ancient China Geng Shiba realism to the novels of the summit. "54" after the novelist began to learn from China's western fiction writing practices, and gradually out a new path. Western novels, is the "Renaissance" after the rapid development of mature. The development of the Middle Ages novel near-stagnation in the West, 14, the end of the century "Renaissance" to overthrow the literature of the Church of control, 15, appeared in the western end of the century to promote freedom of thought and the liberation of personality in order to describe the reality of life and portray characters from all walks of life for the content of the Humanist novels, is to tie in with this type of novel anti-feudal Europe at the time of arising at the same time it also set the novel in the West to human describing the tone of the main things. Jiaqiu Italy's "Decameron", Spain's Cervantes "Don Quixote" is the kind of representative works of fiction. The resulting novel is a classical, elegant favor of its national language to standardize the writing of this novel in 17th century France's most well-developed. As a note on behalf of Corneille's "Cid" neoclassical story of the rise of Western novels have been a language substantially improved. The beginning of the 18th century to promote popular science knowledge, enlightenment of the public consciousness for the purpose of the Enlightenment novels, of which there are relatively well-known German Goethe's "Faust", the United Kingdom Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" and the Swift "Gulliver's Travels" and so on, this type of novel to the emergence of the bourgeois revolution at the time to mold public opinion. In the 19th century, romantic fiction, realistic novels and critical realism novel turn to occupy the leading position in the field of fiction. Romantic novels, such as France Victor Hugo's "Notre Dame de Paris", Goethe's "juvenile Witt of trouble" and so on, imaginative, unusual ideas, language and imaginative, strong feelings. Efforts to reflect the reality of the novel is the essence of life, and depict typical life of a typical phenomenon in the United Kingdom Dickens, France and Germany are of such novels as a representative of the writer. Critical realism novels exposed the efforts of the decadent feudal system and capitalist society, the dark, in-depth criticism of the reality of evil, France Balzac and Maupassant, the United Kingdom of Charlotte, Bronte,. Russia's Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, the United States of a large number of writers such as Mark Twain's works belong to this category. Value today, the three novels in the West is still the most important of the three types of literary fiction. East-West novel on the history of the development of more or less the case. Second, the characteristics of the novel in the West In addition to the basic characteristics of the novel, the story of the West also have their own characteristics are as follows: 1, the traditional Chinese novel attention to the characters, language and the details of the description, in contradiction to the conflict to display the images, but the character of a single, small changes in the absence of the main flu. Western novels are more people pay attention to the psychological description, stressed that mining figure in the subconscious mind, good at writing full, the changes in the strong sense of the main characters. Again, "coach Lin Feng Snow Mountain Temple" in the figure is only through dialogue and action leads to contradictions and conflicts, but Anna Karenina Wogui before a series of conflicts only with his description of the psychological will be able to express their clear; for poetry in Lin In the performance of her literary talent, and Paul with his inner monologue of the ideal; Zhang Zhong-Yong has only the character, but Jane Eyre's character is the brave, strong, warm, kind-hearted, and so many of the character and rubbing and Cheng's. In short, people in the area described in the West has its own unique features. 2, China compared with Western fiction novel plot twists and turns more and more complete story. Plot twists and turns, the story is complete fiction China's unique traditional arts. The Wei and Jin Zhi Zhi people on the novel twists and turns with vivid characteristics. Tang legend in the layout of many of the famous, magnificent anomaly, rigorous and clever, dramatic plot development. The contents of the Ming and Qing Dynasties novels scattered irregular, undulating waves, Cuoluoyouzhi, careful structure, an integral whole. "A Dream of Red Mansions", everywhere She Fu, Hui turning point, the story of Jia's best writing. Western plot in respect of the outstanding works, although there are many, but it can not be compared with the Chinese novel. 3, concise and lively Chinese language novel, rich in content and rich Western novels. Chinese folk artists absorbed the novel language, at the same time inherited the fine traditions of ancient prose, often a few words will be able to outline the incident or the people. Western novels in the author includes a broad range of knowledge, involve the community in many ways, so rich in content and rich people can gain knowledge in many areas. Engels said he was in Balzac's novel about 19th century France's domestic situation than he received any reports are more. Western novels have different characteristics, and also in the West different aesthetic concepts to a certain extent related. 4, Western novels have been the rule of the feudal culture of oppression destroyed. Chinese feudal culture makes the development of the novel is extremely difficult, Ming and Qing Dynasties more people to write stories for shame, so many great writers living, creating the conditions are not covered, many of the great works of authors who do not know. Western novels in the feudal culture makes almost the whole of the Middle Ages in the development of extremely slow, and many talented writers were forced to church services, wrote some of the religious nature of the article dry hole. Third, Western novels in the future prospects for the development of End of the Qing Dynasty, China and the West have begun to understand the other side of the system, the advantages of the novel in the West have been constantly learn from each other. Of course, due to historical reasons, the Chinese side of the draw a little more. To this day, the novelist in the West efforts are still two researchers in the novel's artistic charm, although the different languages of each other's appreciation of the arts to a certain extent, but the United States are interlinked. We have every reason to believe that in the near future, the novel art in the West will ultimately learn from each other and integrate, develop and reach new artistic heights. References: "Foreign Literature" Shanghai Translation Publishing House Zhou Xu Liang "Contemporary Literature election," Zhang Zhong, such as Beijing University Publishing House "Chinese literature history of the development of" Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House Liu Jie "Literary History of Europe" People's Literature Publishing House Yangzhou Han Wu Da-yuan Zhao Rui radish "Three high school language textbook used by the five dates of the" People's Education Press仅供参考,请自借鉴。希望对您有帮助。
Cathy傻丫头
第一章 食品鉴别及方法概述、食物是人体能量的来源 食物是人体生长发育、更新细胞、修补组织、调节各种生理机能所必不可少的营养物质,也是产生热量以保持体温恒定、从事各种活动的能量来源。正因为食品中含有人体所必需的各种营养素和能量,所以它是人类维持生命与健康的必需品,是人类赖以进行一切社会活动的物质基础。没有食物,人类就不能生存。2、假劣食品的质量威胁人类的生命安全食品的质量与人体健康,生命安全有着极为密切的关系。营养丰富的食品,有时会由于微生物的生长繁殖而引起腐败变质,或者是在生长、来收(屠宰)加工、运输、销售等过程中受到有害,有毒物质的污染,这样的食品一但被人食用,就可能引发传染病,寄生虫或食物中毒,造成人体各种组织、器官的损害,严重者甚至会危及生命。 更有一些假冒伪劣食品,鱼目混珠,流入市场,对广大消费者的身体健康构成严重威胁。因此,在选购食品时,学会客观、准确、快速地识别其品质优劣,择优而购是很有必要的。3、正确使用食品质量的感官鉴别食品质量感官鉴别就是凭借人体自身的感觉器官,具体地讲就是凭借眼、耳、鼻、口(包括唇和舌头)和手,对食品的质量状况作出客观的评价。也就是通过用眼睛看、鼻子嗅、耳朵听、用口品尝和用手触摸等方式,对食品的色、香、味和外观形态进行综合性的鉴别和评价。食品质量的优劣最直接地表现在它的感官性状上,通过感官指标来鉴别食品的优劣和真伪,不仅简便易行,而且灵敏度高,直观而实用,与使用各种理化、微生物的仪器进行分析相比,有很多优点,因而它也是食品的生产、销售、管理人员所必须掌握的一门技能。广大消费者从维护自身权益角度讲,掌握这种方法也是十分必要的。应用感官手段来鉴别食品的质量有着非常重要的意义。食品质量感官鉴别能否真实、准确地反映客观事物的本质,除了与人体感觉器官的健全程度和灵敏程度有关外,还与人们对客观事物的认识能力有直接的关系。只有当人体的感觉器官正常,又熟悉有关食品质量的基本常识时,才能比较准确地鉴别出食品质量的优劣。因此,通晓各类食品质量感官鉴别方法,为人们在日常生活中选购食品或食品原料、依法保护自己的正常权益不受侵犯提供了必要的客观依据。4、食品质量感官鉴别所依据法律《中华人民共和国食品卫生法(试行)》第四条规定:“食品应当无毒、无害,符合应当有的营养要求,具有相应的色、香、味等感官性状。”第七条规定了禁止生产经营的食品,其中第一项有:“腐败变质、油脂酸败、霉变、生虫、污秽不洁,混有异物或者其他感官性状异常,可能对人体健康有害的食品,”这里所说的“感官性状异常”指食品失去了正常的感官性状,而出现的理化性质异常或者微生物污染等在感官方面的体现,或者说是食品这里发生不良改变或污染的外在警示。同样,“感官性状异常”不单单是判定食品感官性状的专用术语,而且是作为法律规定的内容和要求而严肃地提出来的。 5、凭感受器官发现食品的轻微变化感官鉴别不仅能直接发现食品感官性状在宏观上出现的异常现象,而且当食品感官性状发生微观变化时也能很敏锐地察觉到。例如,食品中混有杂质、异物、发生霉变、沉淀等不良变化时,人们能够直观地鉴别出来并作出相应的决策和处理,而不需要再进行其他的检验分析。尤其重要的是,当食品的感官性状只发生微小变化,甚至这种变化轻微到有些仪器都难以准确发现时,通过人的感觉器官,如嗅觉等都能给予应有的鉴别。可见,食品的感官质量鉴别有着理化和微生物检验方法所不能替代的优越性。在食品的质量标准和卫生标准中,第一项内容一般都是感官指标,通过这些指标不仅能够直接对食品的感官性状做出判断,而且还能够据此提出必要的理化和微生物检验项目,以便进一步证实感官鉴别的准确性。6、借助理化和微生物仪器检验食品质量感官鉴别 食品质量感官鉴别虽然是在购买食品和进行质量控制过程中不可缺少的重要方法,但由于食品的感官性状变化程度很难具体衡量,也由于鉴别者的客观条件不同和主观态度各异,尤其在对食品感官性状的鉴别判断有争议时,往往难以下结论。为了克服上述弱点,在需要借助感官鉴别方法来裁定食品质量的优劣时,常常要邀请对食品的性状熟悉、感觉器官正常,无不良嗜好、有鉴别经验的人员同时进行,这样可以减少个人的主观性和片面性。若需要衡量食品感官性状的具体变化程度,则应该借助理化和微生物的检验方法来确定。 7、食品质量感官鉴别对何场所的要求食品质量感官鉴别既可以在实验室进行,又可以在购物现插进行,还可以在评比、鉴定会场合进行。由于它的简便易行、可靠性高、实用性强,目前已被国际上普遍承认和来用,并已日益广泛地应用于食品质量检查的实践中。8、食品质量感官鉴别的优点作为鉴别食品质量的有效方法,感官鉴别可以概括出以下三大优点:(1)通过对食品感官性状的综合性检查,可以及时、准确地鉴别出食品质量有无异常,便于早期发现问题,及时进行处理,可避免对人体健康和生命安全造成损害。(2)方法直观、手段简便,不需要借助任何仪器设备和专用、固定的检验场所以及专业人员。 (3)感官鉴别方法常能够察觉其他检验方法所无法鉴别的食品质量特殊性污染微量变化。9、食品色泽的原理与视觉在鉴别中有着重大的意义食品的色泽是人的感官评价食品品质的一个重要因素。不同的食品显现着各不相同的颜色,例如,菠菜的绿色、苹果的红色、胡萝卜的橙红色等,这些颜色是食品中原来固有的。不同种食品中含有不同的有机物,这些有机物又吸收了不同波长的光。如果有机物吸收的是可见光区域内的某些波长的光,那么这些有机物就会呈现各自的颜色,这种颜色是由未被吸收的光波所反映出来的。如果有机物吸收的光其波长在可见光区域以外,那么这种有机物则是无色的。那么何为可见光区域与非可见光区域呢?一般说来自然光是由不同波长的光线组成的。肉眼能见到的光,其波长在400~800纳米之间,在这个波长区域里的光叫作可见光。而小于400纳米和大于800纳米区域的光是肉眼看不到的光,称为不可见光。在可见光区域内,不同波长的光显示的颜色也不同。食品的颜色系因含有某种色素,色素本身并无色,但它能从太阳光线的白色光中进行选择性吸收,余下的则为反射光。故在波长800纳米的红色至波长400纳米的紫色之间的可见光部分,亦既红、橙、黄、绿、青、蓝、紫中的某一色或某几色的光反射刺激视觉而显示其颜色的基本属性,明度、色调、饱和度是识别每一种色的3个指标。对于判定食品的品质亦可从这3个基本属性全面地衡量和比较,这样才能准确地判断和鉴别出食品的质量优劣,以确保购买优质食品。(1)明度:颜色的明暗程度。物体表面的光反射率越高,人跟的视觉就越明亮,这就是说它的明度也越高。人们常说的光泽好,也就是说明度较高。新鲜的食品常具有较高的明度,明度的降低往往意味着食品的不新鲜。例如因致褐变、非酶褐变或其他原因使食品变质时,食品的色泽常发暗甚至变黑。 (2)色调:红、橙、黄、绿等不同的各种颜色,以及如黄绿、蓝绿等许多中间色,它们是由于食品分枝结构中所含色团对不同波长的光线进行选择性吸收而形成的。当物体表面将可见光谱中所有波长的光全部吸收时,物体表面为黑色,如果全部反射,则表现为白色。当对所有波长的光都能部分吸收时,则表现为不同的灰色。黑白系列也属于颜色的一类,只是因为对光谱中各波长的光吸收和反射是没有选择性的,它们只有明度的差别,而没有色调和饱和度着两种特性。色调对于食品的颜色起着决定性的作用,由于人眼的视觉对色调的变化较为敏感,色调稍微改变对颜色的影响就会很大,有时可以说完全破坏了食品的商品价值和实用价值。色调的改变可以用语言或其他方式恰如其分地表达出来(如食品的退色或变色),这说明颜色在食品的感官鉴别中有很重要的意义。 (3)饱和度:颜色的深浅、浓淡程度,也就是某种颜色色调的显著程度。当物体对光谱中某一较窄范围波长的光的发射率很低或根本没有发射时,表明它具有很高的选择性,这种颜色的饱和度就越高。愈饱和的颜色和灰色不同,当某波长的光成分愈多时,颜色也就愈不饱和。食品颜色的深浅,浓淡变化对于感官鉴别而言也是很重要的。10、食品的气味与嗅觉在鉴别中的意义食品本身所固有的、独特的气味,即是食品的正常气味。嗅觉是指食品中含有挥发性物质的微粒子浮游于空气中,经鼻孔刺激嗅觉神经所引起的感觉。人的嗅觉比较复杂,亦很敏感。同样的气味,因个人的嗅觉反应不同,故感受喜爱与厌恶的程度也不同。同时嗅觉易受周围环境的影响,如温度、湿度、气压等对嗅觉的敏感度都具有一定的影响。人的嗅觉适应性特别强,即对一种气味较长时间的刺激很容易顺应。但在适应了某种气味之后,对于其他气味仍很敏感,这是嗅觉的特点。食品的气味,大体上由以下途径形成的:(1)生物合成:食品本身在生长成熟过程中,直接通过生物合成的途径形成香味成分表现出香味。例如香蕉、苹果、梨等水果香味的形成,是典型的生物合成产生的,不需要任何外界条件。本来水果在生长期不显现香味,成熟过程中体内一些化学物质发生变化,产生香味物质,使成熟后的水果逐渐显现出水果香。 (2)直接酶作用:酶直接作用于香味前体物质,形成香味成分,表现出香味。例如当蒜的组织被破坏以后,其中的蒜酶将蒜氨酸分解而产生的气味。(3)氧化作用:也可以称为间接酶作用,即在酶的作用下生长氧化剂,氧化剂再使香味前体物质氧化,生成香味成分,表现出香味。如红茶的浓郁香气就是通过这种途径形成的。 (4)高温分解或发酵作用:通过加热或烘烤等处理,使水平原来存在的香味前体物质分解而产生香味成分。例如芝麻、花生在加热后可产生诱人食欲的香味。发酵也是食品产生香味的重要途径,如酒、酱中的许多香味物质都是通过发酵而产生的。(5)添加香料:为保证和提高食品的感官品质,引起人的食欲,在食品本身没有香味、香味较弱或者在加工中丧失部分香味的情况下,为了补充和完善食品的香味,可有意识地在食品中添加所需要的香料。(6)腐败变质:食品在贮藏、运输或加工过程中,会因发生腐败变质或污染而产生一些不良的气味。这在进行感官鉴别时尤其重要,应认真仔细地加以分析。11、食品的滋味与味觉在鉴别中的意义因为食品中的可溶性物质溶于唾液或液态食品直接刺激舌面的味觉神经,才发生味觉。当对某中食品的滋味发生好感时,则各种消化液分泌旺盛而食欲增加。味觉神经在舌面的分布并不均匀。舌的两侧边缘是普通酸味的敏感区,舌根对于苦味较敏感,舌尖对于甜味和咸味较敏感,但这些都不是绝对的,在感官评价食品的品质时应通过舌的全面品尝方可决定。味觉与温度有关,一般在10~45℃范围内较适宜,尤其30℃时为敏锐。随温度的降低,各种味觉都会减弱,尤以苦味最为明显,而温度升高又会发生同样的减弱。味道与呈味物质的组合以及人的心理也有微妙的相互关系。味精的鲜味在有食盐时尤其显著,是咸味对味精的鲜味起增强作用的结果。另外还有与此相反的削减作用,食盐和砂糖以相当的浓度混合,则砂糖的甜味会明显减弱甚至消失。当尝过食盐后,随即饮用无味的水,也会感到有些甜味,这是味的变调现象。另外还有味的相乘作用,例如在味精中加入一些核苷酸时,会使鲜味有所增强。在选购食品和感官鉴别其质量时,常将滋味分类为甜、酸、咸、苦、辣、涩、浓、淡、碱味及不正常味等。 12、食品质量感官鉴别的基本方法食品质量感官鉴别的基本方法,其实质就是依靠视觉、嗅觉、味觉、触觉和听觉等来鉴定食品的外观形态、色泽、气味、滋味和硬度(稠度)。不论对何种食品进行感官质量评价,上述方法总是不可缺少的,而且常是在理化和微生物检验方法之前进行。13、食品质量视觉鉴别方法的注意问题这是判断食品质量的一个重要感官手段。食品的外观形态和色泽对于评价食品的新鲜程度,食品是否有不良改变以及蔬菜、水果的成熟度等有着重要意义。视觉鉴别应在白昼的散射光线下进行,以免灯光隐色发生错觉。鉴别时应注意整体外观、大小、形态、块形的完整程度、清洁程度,表面有无光泽、颜色的深浅色调等。在鉴别液态食品时,要将它注入无色的玻璃器皿中,透过光线来观察,也可将瓶子颠倒过来,观察其中有无夹杂物下沉或絮状物悬浮。14、食品质量嗅觉鉴别方法应注意的事项人的嗅觉器官相当敏感,甚至用仪器分析的方法也不一定能检查出来极轻微的变化,用嗅觉鉴别却能够发现。当食品发生轻微的腐败变质时,就会有不同的异味产生。如核桃的核仁变质所产生的酸败而有哈喇味,西瓜变质会带有馊味等。食品的气味是一些具有挥发性的物质形成的,所以在进行嗅觉鉴别时常需稍稍加热,但最好是在15~25℃的常温下进行,因为食品中的气味挥发性物质常随温度的高低而增减。在鉴别食品时,液态食品可滴在清洁的手掌上摩擦,以增加气味的挥发,识别畜肉等大块食品时,可将一把尖刀稍微加热刺入深部,拔出后立即嗅闻气味。食品气味鉴别的顺序应当是先识别气味淡的,后鉴别气味浓的以免影响嗅觉的灵敏度。在鉴别前禁止吸烟。15、食品质量味觉鉴别注意事项感官鉴别中的味觉对于辨别食品品质的优劣是非常重要的一环。味觉器官不但能品尝到食品的滋味如何,而且对于食品中极轻微的变化也能敏感地察觉。做好的米饭存放到尚未变馊时,其味道即有相应的改变。味觉器官的敏感性与食品的温度有关,在进行食品的滋味鉴别时,最好使食品处在20~45℃之间,以免温度的变化会增强或减低对味觉器官的刺激。几种不同味道的食品在进行感官评价时,应当按照刺激性由弱到强的顺序,最后鉴别味道强烈的食品。在进行大量样品鉴别时,中间必须休息,每鉴别一种食品之后必须用温水漱口。16、食品质量触觉鉴别时的注意问题凭借触觉来鉴别食品的膨、松、软、硬、弹性(稠度),以评价食品品质的优劣,也是常用的感官鉴别方法之一。例如,根据鱼体肌肉的硬度和弹性,常常可以判断鱼是否新鲜或腐败,评价动物油脂的品质时,常须鉴别其稠度等。在感官测定食品硬度(稠度)时,要求温度应在15~20℃之间,因为温度的升降会影响到食品状态的改变。17、食品质量感官鉴别适用的范围凡是作为食品原料、半成品或成品的食物,其品质优劣与真伪评价,都适用于感官鉴别。而且食品的感官鉴别,既适用于专业技术人员在室内进行技术鉴定,也适合广大消费者在市场上选购食品时应用。可见,食品感官鉴别方法具有广泛的适用范围。其具体适用范围如下: (1)肉及其制品:畜肉种类很多,禽肉更是不胜枚举,如猪、羊、牛、马、骡、驴、狗、鸡、鸭、鹅等畜禽肉及其制品都可以进行感官鉴别。各种畜禽肉都有其相应的特点,病、死畜禽肉与正常畜禽肉的鉴别方法,不仅对食品卫生或质量管理人员适用,而且对于为数众多的购买畜禽肉的消费人群也是适用的。(2)奶及其制品:消毒鲜奶或者个体送奶户的鲜奶直接来用感官鉴别也是非常适用的。在选购奶制品时,也适用于感官鉴别,从包装到制品颗粒的细洁程度,有无异物污染等,通过感官鉴别即可一目了然。(3)水产品及其制品:鱼、虾、蟹等水产鲜品及干贝类、海参类等经过感官鉴别,即可确定能否食用。方法简便易行,快速准确。(4)蛋及其制品:禽蛋种类很多,它与人们日常生活消费关系密切,能否食用或者变质与否,通过感官鉴别即可作出结论。这对于广大消费者来讲是很适用的方法。(5)冷饮与酒类:冷饮与酒类的感官鉴别也具有很广泛的实用性。特别是酒中的沉淀物、悬浮物、杂质异物通过感官鉴别都可以直接检查出来。 。(6)调味品与其他食品:调味品主要是酱油、酱、醋及酱腌菜,其他食品如茶,糕点等等。这些食品都可以通过感官鉴别,把宏观指标不符合卫生质量要求者区分出来予以控制,严防流入市场造成不良影响。 总之,各种食品原料及其制品质量的宏观评价,都适用于感官鉴别方法。18、食品质量感官鉴别应遵循的原则要坚持对具体情况作具体分析,充分做好调查研究工作。因此,感官鉴别食品的品质时,要着眼于食品各方面的指标进行综合性考评,尤其要注意感官鉴别的结果,必要时参考检验数据,做全面分析,以期得出合理、客观、公正的结论。这里应遵循的原则是:(1)《中华人民共和国食品卫生法》、国务院有关部委和省、市卫生行政部门颁布的食品卫生法规是鉴别各类食品能否食用的主要依据。(2)食品已明显腐败变质或含有过量的有毒有害物质(如重金属含量过高或霉变)时,不得供食用。(3)食品由于某种原因不能供直接食用,必须加工复制或在其他条件下处理的,可提出限定加工条件和限定食用及销售等方面的具体要求。(4)食品某些指标的综合评价结果略低于卫生标准,而新鲜度、病原体,有毒有害物质含量均符合卫生标准时,可提出要求在某种条件下供人食用。(5)在鉴别指标的掌握上,婴幼儿、病人食用的食品要严于成年人、健康人食用的食人、健康人食用的食品。(6)鉴别结论必须明确,不得含糊不清,对条件可食的食品,应将条件写清楚。对于没有鉴别参考标准的食品,可参照有关同类食品恰当地鉴别。 (7)在进行食品综合性鉴别前,应向有关单位或个人收集该食品的有关资料,如食品的来源、保管方法、贮存时间、原料组成、包装情况以及加工、运输、贮藏、经营过程中的卫生情况;寻找可疑环节,为上述鉴别结论提供必要的正确判断基础。对食品进行感官鉴别时,除遵循上述原则外,还要注意以下有关要求:(1)食品卫生监督管理人员和其他进行感官鉴别的人员,必须具有健康的体魄,健全的精神素质,无不良嗜好、偏食和变态性反应,并应具有丰富的专业知识和感官鉴别经验。(2)检查人员自身的感觉器官机能良好,对色、香、味的变化有较强的分辨力和较高的灵敏度。(3)非食品专业人员在检查和鉴别感官性状时,除具有正常的感觉器官外,还应对所选购的食品有一般性的了解,或对该食品正常的色、香、味、形具有习惯性经验。 19、鉴别后的食品其食用与处理原则鉴别和挑选食品时,遇有明显变化者,应当即做出能否供给食用的确切结论。对于感官变化不明显的食品,尚须借助理化指标和微生物指标的检验,才能得出综合性的鉴别结论。因此,通过感官鉴别之后,特别是对有疑虑和争议的食品,必须再进行实验室的理化和细菌检验,以便辅助感官鉴别。尤其是混入了有毒、有害物质或被分解蛋白质的致病菌所污染的食品,在感官评价后,必须做上述两种专业操作,以确保鉴别结论的正确性。并且应提出该食品是否存在有毒有害物质,阐明其来源和含量、作用和危害,根据被鉴别食品的具体情况提出食用或处理原则。食品的食用或处理原则是在确保人民群众身体健康的前提下,尽量减少国家、集体或个人的经济损失,并考虑到物尽其用的问题。具体方式通常有以下四种;(1)正常食品:经过鉴别和挑选的食品,其感官性状正常,符合国家卫生标准,可供食用。(2)无害化食品;食品在感官鉴别时发现了一些问题,对人体健康有一定危害,但经过处理后,可以被清除或控制,其危害不再会影响到食用者的健康。如高温加热、加工复制等。(3)条件可食食品;有些食品在感官鉴别后,需要在特定的条件下才能供人食用。如有些食品已接近保质期,必须限制出售和限制供应对象。(4)危害健康食品:在食品感官鉴别过程中发现的对人体健康有严重危害的食品,不能供给食用。但可在保证不扩大蔓延并对接触人员安全无危害的前提下,充分利用其经济价值,如作工业使用。但对严重危害人体健康且不能保证安全的食品,如畜、禽患有烈性传染病,或易造成在畜禽肉中蔓延的传染病,以及被剧毒毒物或被放射性物质污染的食品,必须在严格的监督下毁弃。20、食品质量感官鉴别常用的一般术语及其含义酸味:由某些酸性物质(例如柠檬酸、酒石酸等)的水溶液产生的一种基本味道。苦味:由某些物质(例如奎宁,咖啡因等)的水溶液产生的一种基本味道。咸味:由某些物质(例如氧化钠)的水溶液产生的基本味道。甜味:由某些物质(例如蔗糖)的水溶液产生的一种基本味道。碱味:由某些物质(例如碳酸氢钠)在嘴里产生的复合感觉。涩味:某些物质(例如多酚类)产生的使皮肤或黏膜表面收敛的一种复合感觉。风味:品尝过程中感受到的嗅觉,味觉和三又神经觉特性的复杂结合。它可能受触觉的、温度觉的,痛觉的和(或)动觉效应的影响。异常风味:非产品本身所具有的风味(通常与产品的腐败变质相联系)。沾染:与该产品无关的外来味道、气味等。味道:能产生味觉的产品的特性。基本味道:四种独特味道的任何一种:酸味的、苦味的、咸味的、甜味的。厚味:味道浓的产品。平味:一种产品,其风味不浓且无任何特色。乏味:一种产品,其乏味远不及预料的那样。无味:没有风味的产品。风味增强剂:一种能使某种产品的风味增强而本身又不具有这种风味的物质。口感:在口腔内(包括舌头与牙齿)感受到的触觉。后味、余味:在产品消失后产生的嗅觉和(或)味觉。它有时不同于产品在嘴里时的感受。芳香:一种带有愉快内涵的气味。气味:嗅觉器官感受到的感官特性。特征:可区别及可识别的气味或风味特色。异常特征:非产品本身所具有的特征(通常于产品的腐败变质相联系)。外观:一种物质或物体的外部可见特征。质地:用机械的、触觉的方法或在适当条件下,用视觉及听觉感受器感觉到的产品的所有流变学的和结构上的(几何图形和表面)特征。稠度:由机械的方法或触觉感受器,特别是口腔区域受到的刺激而觉察到的流动特性。它随产品的质地不同而变化。硬:描述需要很大力量才能造成一定的变形或穿透的产品的质地特点。结实:描述需要中等力量可造成一定的变形或穿透的产品的质地特点。柔软:描述只需要小的力量就可造成一定的变形或穿透的产品的质地特点。嫩:描述很容易切碎或嚼烂的食品的质地特点。常用于肉和肉制品。老:描述不易切碎或嚼烂的食品的质地特点。常用于肉和肉制品。酥:修饰破碎时带响声的松而易碎的食品。有硬壳:修饰具有硬而脆的表皮的食品。无毒、无害:不造成人体急性、慢性疾病,不构成对人体健康的危害:或者含有少量有毒有害物质,但尚不足以危害健康的食品。在质量感官鉴别结论上可写成“无毒”字样。营养素:正常人体代谢过程中所利用的任何有机物质和无机物质。色、香、味:食品本身固有的和加工后所应当具有的色泽、香气、滋味。21、粮食质量感官鉴别常用术语及其含义未熟粒:籽粒不饱满、外观全部为粉质,无光泽的颗粒。损伤粒:虫蛀、病斑和生芽等伤及胚或胚乳的颗粒。筛下物:通过直径20毫米的孔筛的物质。无机杂质:泥土、砂石、玻璃、砖瓦块、铁钉类及其他无机物质。有机杂质:无食用价值的稻谷粒、草籽、异种粮粒及其他有机黄粒米:胚乳呈黄色,与正常米粒色泽明显不同的颗粒。颜色、气味:一批谷物的综合色泽和气味。22、食用油脂质量感官鉴别常用术语及其含义酸价:衡量油脂中游离脂肪酸含量的指标。游离脂肪酸含量越多,酸价越高,说明油脂的质量越差。过氧化值:油脂最初氧化的灵敏指标。过氧化值超过%时,即为油脂酸败的征兆。溶剂残留量:提取油脂时所用的有机溶剂正己烷等在油脂中的残留部分。溶剂残留多时,造成食用油脂异味大,影响食用。棉酚:存在于棉籽油中的一种黄色色素。棉酚有游离型和结合型两种。结合型无毒。棉酚一般是指有毒的游离型棉酚。油脂酸败:油脂长期贮存于不适宜的条件下,产生一系列的化学成分改变,使油脂分解出醛、酮、低级脂肪酸、氧化物和过氧化物等,造成油脂感官性状改变,如有哈喇味等。23、食糖质量感官鉴别常用术语及其含义颜色:糖的外观品质指标。白糖颜色要洁白明亮,红糖要红亮。糖颜色深浅与糖的纯净度有关。晶粒:糖的颗粒结晶而言。砂糖晶粒整齐、大小一致。富有光泽、晶面明显、晶粒松散、不粘手、不结块。气味与滋味:糖应具有的正常的气味与滋味。糖汁处理不净则带有异味,保管不妥则易沾污其他商品味,被微生物(酵母)污染易产生酒味和酸味。夹杂物:糖中不应含有的外来的各种异物,如砂土、泥块、草屑等。24、调味品质量感官鉴别常用术语及其含义(1)酱油色泽:普通酱油所具有的棕褐色,不发乌,有光泽。香气:酱油应当有一定的酱香气,无其他不良气味。滋味:酱油咸甜适口、味鲜回甜,无苦、酸、涩等异味。生白:酱油表面生出一层白膜,是一种产气膜性酵母菌引起的 (2)食醋色泽:食醋应具有与加工方法相适应的产品的固有色泽。气味:食醋应具有酸甜气味,不得混有异味。滋味:食醋应具有酸甜适口感,不涩,无其他不良滋味。霉花浮膜:食醋表面由微生物繁殖所引起的一层霉膜。醋鳗、醋虱:食醋在生产过程中被污染,在醋中有两种形态不同的生物存活,即醋鳗和醋虱。(3)酱色泽:各种
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