世界通史论文参考文献

The importance of family education Family education on the issue since ancient times by people's concern, but as a subject to study in China in recent years is also the matter. This is the development of the times, the demand, the National necessary to improve the overall quality of the issues involved. Here with the parents of the importance of family education, the aim is to the family and society, the education sector to shoulder the common task of educating the next generation. The education is a system of education works here include a family education, social education, collective (Tuoyouyuansuo, school) education, the three interrelated and organic combination of mutual influence, interaction and mutual constraints The education project from which one can, but in this project, family education is the foundation of all education. The former Soviet Union educators famous Su Huomu Belinsky transferred to a child than marble, he said, to shape this into a marble statue of need six sculptor: 1 family, 2 schools, 3 children of the collective; 4 child; books; 6 occasional factor. From the order, the family was included in the first place, can see the family in shaping children in the course of a very important role in the hearts of the educators occupy a position. For this reason parents understand the importance of family education is very necessary. First, family education is the starting point for education and basic point Family education generally refers to the family of parents and adult children of minors education process. Their educational objectives should be: the child into the community to accept collective education (kindergarten, school education) prior to guarantee the physical and mental health development of children, to accept the kindergartens, schools of education to lay a solid foundation. The child for admission into the school, with kindergartens, schools to moral, intellectual, physical, the United States, the various aspects of comprehensive development. Education is the focus of moral education mainly among children good moral quality and develop good habits mainly habits include: living habits, labor practices, learning habits, the church children how to learn "life." As a result of family education in the family, and kindergartens, schools of education, social education, compared with the following characteristics of these features so that family education to become the starting point for education and basic point is by no other educational advantages. (A) family of early education The family is the cradle of life of children, who are receiving education after the birth of a venue that is the first class life; parents are children's first teachers, that is, the Enlightenment division. Therefore, parents of children by the application of early education the most. Generally speaking, after the birth of a child after three years of development, access to early childhood, from the 3-year-old…… 6-year-old is preschool, which is said in the early stages of education, this is the physical and mental development of an important period. China's Gu Yan: "Cang, with the Cang, with the yellow, yellow." Childhood is gradually nurture life with the beginning of many basic human capacity is a stage of this age, such as language, and some basic moves Living habits, and so on, the character is gradually taking shape. . psychologists Bloom, a person's intellectual development if his 17-year-old regarded as the level reached 100 percent, then 4 years old when it reached 50 percent. 4-8 years old and a 30% increase ,8-17-year-old also won 20 percent. This shows that children in the 5-year-old former intelligence is the fastest growing period, the early intellectual development is the best, if parents in this period by the implementation of good family education, early child will be the key to intellectual development. Since ancient times, many people with lofty ideals, celebrities in the early years of fruitful period by a good family education is their future become an important cause. For example, the German poet, playwright Goethe's become, effective early education in the family. Goethe 2-3 years old, his father hold on to the outskirts of the field visit to observe nature, culture Goethe's observation capability. 3-4 years old, his father taught him to sing, the songs back, said a fairy tale, and we intend to let him in the face of public lectures, training his speaking ability. These are awareness education so that young Goethe optimistic, progressive, happy to think, be good at learning. Goethe-8-year-old can use, Germany, Britain, Italy, Latin, Greek reading books, 14-year-old wrote the script, the 25-year-old with a month's time wrote a famous poem in Europe, "The Sorrows of Young Werther . " Another example of ancient "and his son calligrapher," Wang Xizhi's known for, Wang Xianzhi, there have been a number of 1350 Edison invented the great inventors, the generation of literary star Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and other celebrities of the growth process that the family education in the early intellectual development is very important . Instead, the period of childhood are not good family education and intellectual impact on the normal development of many of the examples is. Such as India, "Langhai" Ka Mala, who was Diao to the wolf, when 8-year-old was found, but their living habits with the same people, their living habits and almost like a wolf, limbs, crawling, eating raw meat, day V Night, Later, a man-made training, two years before standing, after six years can be like walking Xiangren, four years learned to six words, in his 17-year-old, the intellectual level reached only 3-year-old child's level. According to "China Women" revealed that China's Nanjing City Xingma one of the workers suffering from mental and psychological diseases, Shenpa children persecuted by the people, will own three children from small lock at home, people so that they contacts with the outside world, has a long Up to 10 years, resulting in the children mental retardation, speech delay, compared with their peers, intellectual capacity and very different life, near idiots, so the family can not be neglected the role of early education, (B) family education continuity of family education second characteristic is the continuity. After the birth of a child, from small to large, almost 2 / 3 of time living in the family, Zhaochaomumu, all the parents in the education. Such education is the intentional and unintentional, planned and unplanned, consciously and unconsciously, are carried out, no matter what, in what time education, parents are in their own words and deeds at any time affect their children's education . Such education of children living habits, moral conduct and behaviour and so on in the style of conversation kept to influence and demonstrations, the subtle influence of the considerable role, accompanied by a person's life can be said to live to old to learn the old, some Parent educator again called for life teachers. This life of the education often reflects a family's Family Style, Family Style is good or bad often have to continue for several generations, or even a dozen, dozens generation, and this Family Style often with family members engaged in the employment-related . Such as: Xinglin family "," Pear Orchard House, "" family education ", etc. At the same time Family Style also reflects a family's style of study, study, good or bad is often the continuation of many generations, a dozen people, several dozens of generations . As in modern China, Wuxi people Yan Gong added-not "countries selected in the Museum", statistics from 2003-Shunzhi Branch to Guangxu 30 years Bing Xu Jia Chen Branch, the champion of 114 people, including his son by the first brothers Shuzhileishi Absolutely not, such as Suzhou Miao, Wu and Pan Sanxing, Changshu Weng, both surnamed Jiang, Chen Haining, Zhejiang, check the two surnames. See, family education is often the continuity of personnel groups have an important impact on the rise. This Situation. Ancient and modern times quite prominent in the contemporary with the development of science, and social needs of the unemployed increased, the broad people's careers, a family member can not have all engaged in the same work, but many see this situation That some family members work frequently appears in the results, be commended, but some family members one after another crime. This is a continuous education and family have great relations. (C) family education authority Family Education is the authority of parents in their children on their elders reflected by the power and power. The existence of the family, parents and children identified the blood relationship, upbringing, emotional, moral and ethical children in the living needs of the elderly parents have great dependence, family members and the fundamental interests of consistency, have decided The father of each of their children a greater role in the constraints. Parent education was easier to accept and submit to the children, parents and reasonable use of this feature, the children good moral character and habits formed the usefulness, for child care, in particular, is the case. Child care and other children in playing the game, when disputes arise when parents are often invoked to confirm their own speech act is right, if they like to say: "My father is saying this." Or "My mother is So do. "And so on. Children of parents in the eyes of the authority decided to accept the child how to treat the nursery schools and community education. The relationship between children and parents, the child is the first to face an important social relations. In this relationship, almost embodies the moral social ethics in all aspects, if such a relationship in the formation of cracks and defects, the children then to the community, in a variety of relationships will be reflected. Therefore stressed the importance of parental authority, but also because the children of parents in childhood has always played a dual role: the safety of children is not only the survival of protected persons, but also a life of the Wizard of Enlightenment. The effects of parental education, depends on the extent to establish the authority of parents, foster parents must be authoritative Built on respect for children on the basis of personality, rather than the feudal patriarchal system, parents are wise to understand the importance of establishing authority, but also know how to establish the authority does not rely on repression and force, subjective assumptions, but the method used Gangrouxiangji. Both parents in the education of their children's attitude on the first concerted and coordinate with each other, should be wide, wide, it should be strict martial law, in front of their children establish a kind of dignity and image, so that parents accept their children's education. (D) of the infected family education Parents with children between the blood relationship and kinship between the natural and close, making the parents of the children have strong feelings on the role of infection. Children on the demeanour of the parents can often Xinlingshenkuai to intelligence-intelligence. In dealing with in and around the side of the relationship between matter and the issue of children on the attitude of parents is very easy to resonate. In the happy parents, the children will take part in joy, the parents showed irritability and Menmenbuyue, the child's emotions can easily be affected, even young children as well. If the parents lack of rational and emotional, hot temper, will enable blind children to absorb its weaknesses. Some parents in dealing with unexpected incidents, show panic anxiety, surprise, the impact on children is not good if the frightened parents the same, steady firm and children in distress will also calm the situation calmly, so the quality of child psychology training Play a positive role. (5) timeliness of family education Family education process, parents are parents of children in the family of the individual acts of education than kindergarten, school education should promptly. As the saying goes:知子莫若父, that women Morrow home. Overnight between parents and children, their situation can be said to be well known to the children was slightly changed, even a look, a smile can make parents Xinlingshenhui, so as parents through their children's every move, his every word and deed can make the best of At this very moment of their psychological state, found the child on the existing problems, timely education, timely corrective, not the problem overnight, so that bad habits in the embryonic stage of the eradication. And kindergartens, schools, teachers faced with dozens of children, only for the children of this age stage for general education, that is, education groups, because of time and energy constraints, it is impossible to take care of each child's characteristics, Prone to the phenomenon of loss, or even to take care of the children of teachers and the poor do not have a sense of trust, and parents could guide their children promptly correct understanding. So parents of children to the correct family education so that children can enter kindergarten before forming a good habit, to accept collective education has laid a good foundation, can make up for the lack of mass education. Second, a good family education is the 21st century created the necessary conditions for personnel "China's 1990s development program for children" in the specified: "Today's children are the masters of the 21st century, child protection and the bottom-up development is to improve the quality of the population base, which is a prerequisite for development. The healthy growth of children Related to the future and destiny of the motherland. Improve the quality of the entire nation, from the start with children. "And:" In 2000 to make 90 percent of children (under the age of 14) of the parents to varying degrees, master conservation, education of children of knowledge. "This Top targeted the parents shoulders for the state created the heavy responsibility of the 21st century talents. Can this generation of children training to become Dezhitimei the all-round development of people, this country is Houjiyouren relationship to the Bainiantaiji. Fu-Lu Bell also said: "The country's fate is not so much lies in the hands of those in power, we might as well have said to be in the hands of his mother." This sentence is very philosophical, it profoundly understand the parents pick in the education of their children in The role played by. Parents should first clear direction of education and national interests, the people's request in line with the principle, the child can not be regarded as private property, it is necessary to establish the idea of the country, correct educational purposes. China's 21st century is what the situation, with the words of Comrade Deng Xiaoping, to make our country in the middle of the 21st century to achieve the level of moderately developed countries, per capita income reached 4,000 . dollars, in gross national product amounted to 6 trillion . dollars. The 21st century should be a good ideologies and noble moral character, and improve the psychological quality, positive spirit of cooperation with others, strong adaptability, Chikunailao the comprehensive development of the new generation. If the 21st century do not have such a group of high-quality builders is very difficult to complete this great, with such a quality is not overnight can do, and a good family education training is a prerequisite for high-quality people. Third, a good family education is a catalyst to optimize the children hearts Children from infancy into childhood, with age, from the family environment will eventually enter the small community, contact with the crowd outside the home, things. Lee Jia Choue those in society from time to time to enter the child's perspective, adults take isolation tactics will not work, because in the family video from different angles will continue to reflect the reality in today's society, issues both positive and negative have The. Children, especially young children lack a rational ability to distinguish right from wrong, but sensitive than adults have the feeling of capacity. They occurred around the kind of terrible things, sensitive, and this sensitivity training is the ability to rationally distinguish between a good basis, as parents should take advantage of this extension, help the children feel in this capacity on the basis of , The development of the social life of the ability to identify and psychological capacity, social filter information, optimize the hearts of young children. If parents in their daily life can be for young children is not strong capacity to accept the characteristics specific to seize the day-to-day chores, help children understand the community in identifying the Shishifeifei, specifically so that they feel Lee's bright side, Experience to the ugly despicable, can help children enhance the Yangshan Chuxie sense of justice, thus resist the dark side of the ugly soul of the child erosion. For example, today's video into the urban residents in almost every family, the children almost every day to deal with them, it can be said is not out of their homes, Bianzhi the world. Which can be received from all over the world all kinds of information. There are political situation, scientific and technological progress, ordinary people of Sushi, from which you can learn a lot of knowledge and understanding of major domestic and international events, both within and outside small home. It is inevitable that some homicide violence, obscene absurdity of the lens Yingru child's eyelid. Parents should address these issues timely guidance, to improve their children's ability to identify, we need to keep their own perceptions of behaviour, for their children establish a positive image, optimizing the hearts of children, the prevention of child make mistakes, and even violations of law and discipline. Family to work in this area, help small and stability of the environment. The family is society's cells, with healthy cells, can we have a sound body, the sick cells, the body will cause disease. As an ancient saying goes: "body repair and then home-and-then-State governance, rule of the then-world", "Qijia, the country, the world-the" point of view is that this truth. For this reason parents do a good job in optimizing the work of children's mental stability and social, stability and national power in ages. In short, as parents to the importance of family education fully and conscientiously do a good job in their children's education, make good parents responsibilities and obligations for the country to train qualified personnel in the building.

史记史记《史记》约成书于前104年至前91年，本来是没有书名的，司马迁完成这部巨著后曾给当时的大学者东方朔看过，东方朔非常钦佩，就在书上加了“太史公”三字。“太史”是司马迁的官职，“公”是美称，“太史公”也只是表明谁的著作而已。班固的《汉书·艺文志》在著录这部书时，改成《太史公百三十篇》，后人则又简化成“太史公记”、“太史公书”、“太史公传”。久而久之，人们根据“太史公记”而省略成《史记》。近人梁启超称赞这部巨著是“千古之绝作”（《论中国学术思想变迁之大势》）。鲁迅誉之为“史家之绝唱，无韵之《离骚》”（《汉文学史纲》）《史记》是一部贯穿古今的通史，从传说中的黄帝开始，一直写到汉武帝元狩元年（前122年），叙述了我国三千年左右的历史。全书略于先秦，详于秦汉，所述秦商鞅变法至汉武帝晚年的历史，约占全书篇幅的五分之三左右。据司马迁说，全书有本纪十二篇，表十篇，书八篇，世家三十篇，列传七十篇，共一百三十篇.“本纪”实际上就是帝王的传记，因为帝王是统理国家大事的最高的首脑，为他们作纪传而名之曰“本纪“，正所以显示天下本统之所在，使官民行事都有一定的纲纪的缘故。同时，也是全书的总纲，是用编年体的方法记事的。在“本纪”的写作中，司马迁采取了详今略远的办法，时代愈远愈略，愈近愈详。“本纪”托始黄帝，是因为黄帝是中华民族的始祖，又是“正名百物”的祖师。将项羽列入“本纪”，一是秦汉间几年“政由羽出”，一是推崇其人格。�“书”，是记载历代朝章国典，以明古今制度沿革的专章，非是熟悉掌故的史家，是无法撰写成书的。班固《汉书》改称“志”，成为通例。“书”的修撰，为研究各种专门史提供了丰富的资料。“世家”是记载诸侯王国之事的。这因诸侯开国承家，子孙世袭，也就给了他们的传记叫做世家。从西周的大封建开始，发展到春秋、战国，各诸侯国先后称霸称雄，盛极一时，用“世家”体裁记述这一情况，是非常妥当的。司马迁把孔子和陈涉也列入“世家”，是一种例外。孔子虽非王侯，但却是传承三代文化的宗主，更何况汉武帝时儒学独尊，孔子是儒学的创始人，将之列入“世家”也反映了思想领域的现实情况。至于陈涉，不但是首先起义亡秦的领导者，且是三代以来以平民起兵而反残暴统治的第一人，而亡秦的侯王又多是他建置的。司马迁将之列入“世家”，把他的功业和汤放桀，武王伐纣，孔子作《春秋》相比，将他写成为震撼暴秦帝国统治、叱咤风云的伟大历史英雄，反映了作者进步的历史观。“列传”是记载帝王、诸侯以外的各种历史人物的。有单传，有合传，有类传。单传是一人一传，如《商君列传》、《李斯列传》等。合传是记二人以上的，如《管晏列传》、《老庄申韩列传》等。类传是以类相从，把同一类人物的活动，归到一个传内，如《儒林列传》、《循吏列传》、《刺客列传》等。司马迁把当时我国四周少数民族的历史情况，也用类传的形式记载下来，如《匈奴列传》、《朝鲜列传》、《大宛列传》等，这就为研究我国古代少数民族的历史，提供了重要的史料来源。班固在《汉书·司马迁传》中提到《史记》缺少十篇。三国魏张晏指出这十篇是《景帝本纪》、《武帝本纪》、《礼书》、《乐书》、《律书》、《汉兴以来将相年表》、《日者列传》、《三王世家》、《龟策列传》、《傅靳蒯列传》。其中《武帝纪》、《三王世家》、《龟策列传》和《日者列传》四篇由汉博士褚少孙补缺。《汉书·艺文志》载冯商续补《太史公》七篇,韦昭注云冯商“受诏续《太史公书》十余篇”,刘知几认为续补《史记》的不只是褚,冯两家,而有十五家之多。“《史记》所出,年止太初,其后刘向,向子欲,及诸好事者,若冯商,卫衡,扬雄,史岑,梁审,肆仁,晋冯,段肃,金丹,冯衍,韦融,萧奋,刘恂等相继撰续,迄于哀平间,尤名《史记》”。后人大多数不同意张晏的说法，但《史记》残缺是确凿无疑的。《史记》以后的历代正史，除极个别例外，都是由朝廷主持、按照君主的意志修撰的，是名副其实的官史。而司马迁虽然是朝廷的史官，《史记》却并不体现最高统治者汉武帝的意志。据说武帝读《史记》后，对其中几篇感到愤怒，下令加以删削，这也是有可能的。 司马迁写《史记》秉笔直书,在某些方面,敢于批评朝廷,这是封建统治者所不能允许的。朝廷对《史记》既憎之,又重之,秘不示人,阅读范围限制于朝廷上层的极少一部分人中。朝廷曾下诏删节和续补《史记》。《后汉书·杨终传》云,杨终“受诏删《太史公书》为十余万言”。被删后仅十余万言的《史记》,在汉以后即失传,以后一直流传的是经续补的《史记》。（补注：许多人认为褚少孙是《史记》的主要续补者,但是他到底补缺多少,各人说法不一。张晏认为褚少孙续补四篇。但姚振宁在《隋书·经籍志考证》中说《史记》缺少十五篇,全由褚少孙续补。有的人认为《傅勒列传》文章,格调酷似司马迁,褚少孙未必能写出如此文章。《史记》取材相当广泛。当时社会上流传的《世本》、《国语》、《国策》、《秦记》、《楚汉春秋》、诸子百家等著作和国家的文书档案，以及实地调查获取的材料，都是司马迁写作《史记》的重要材料来源。特别可贵的是，司马迁对搜集的材料做了认真地分析和选择，淘汰了一些无稽之谈。对一些不能弄清楚的问题，或者采用阙疑的态度，或者记载各种不同的说法。由于取材广泛，修史态度严肃认真，所以，《史记》记事翔实，内容丰富。这部体大思精的史书的贡献和特点主要有这样几个方面；（一）开创了“纪传体”体例。何谓纪传体呢？纪，指本纪，即皇帝的传记；传，指列传，是一般大臣和各式人物的传记。历史人物是丰富多彩的，历史现象是纷纭复杂的。怎样才能把大千世界的各种人和事都包容在一部书里呢？司马迁在前人的基础上，在《史记》中以本纪、表、书、世家、列传五体结构。创造性地探索了以人物为主体的历史编纂学方法。“本纪”按年代顺序记叙帝王的言行和政迹；“表”按年代谱列各个时期的重大事件；“书”记录了各种典章制度的沿革；“世家”载述诸侯国的兴衰和杰出人物的业绩；“列传”记载各种代表人物的活动。司马迁创造性地把这五种体裁综合起来，形成一个完整的统一体系。（二）《史记》开创了政治、经济、民族、文化等各种知识的综合纂史方法。它从传说中的黄帝开始，一直写到汉武帝时期，记载了我国近三千年的历史。是我国第一部规模宏大、贯通古今、内容广博的百科全书式的通史。在《史记》中，司马迁第一个为经济史作传：《平准书》、《货殖列传》；司马迁又第一个为少数民族立传：《匈奴列传》、《西南夷列传》等；他还第一个为卑微者列传：《刺客列传》、《游侠列传》等。《史记》第一次把政治、经济、文化各个方面都包容在历史学的研究范围之内，从而开拓了历史学研究的新领域，推动了我国历史学的发展。由于纪传体可以容纳广泛的内容，有一定的灵活性，又能反映出封建的等级关系，因而这种撰史方法，为历代史家所采用，影响十分深远。（三）秉笔直书，是我国宝贵的史学传统，司马迁的《史记》对此有很好的发挥。所谓秉笔直书，就是史学家必须忠于历史史实，既不溢美，也不苛求，按照历史的本来面貌撰写历史。《史记》明确表示反对那种“誉者或过其失，毁者或损其真”的作法。项羽是司马迁心目中的英雄，因此，司马迁以极大的热情和强烈的爱记述了项羽的伟业。但对于项羽的骄傲自大和企图以武力征服天下的致命弱点，司马迁也进行了深刻的批判。对于先秦的法家和秦代的暴政，从感情上司马迁是愤恨的，但他做到了不因憎而增其恶。相反，对法家的改革和秦代统一中国的历史作用，他都予以充分的肯定。正因为司马迁的实录精神，才使《史记》以信史闻名于世。《史记》还贯穿一条重要线索，即重视人的历史作用。司马迁是反天命的。强调人是历史的中心。因此，他在写帝王将相的同时、注意为社会上的各种人立传，尤其是把农民起义的领袖陈胜、吴广，放到与王侯功臣以及封建社会的圣人孔子同等的地位来写。所以在《史记》中，既有战国七雄的世家、萧丞相（萧何）。留侯（张良）的世家、孔子的世家，同时也有《陈涉世家》。司马迁也很重视物质生产活动在历史上的作用，把经济状况同政治上的治乱兴衰紧密地联系在一起。他还强调总结历史经验。提出以史为镜、鉴往知来的思想。由于司马迁在历史编纂学上的伟大创造精神，他的进步的史学思想和严谨的治史方法，使《史记》成为我国史学史上一座巍峨的丰碑，司马迁也赢得了“中国史学之父”的美名。（四）《史记》也是一部形象生动的历史，它的文采历来为我国文学界所称颂，它开创了我国传记文学的先河。司马迁像一个出色的画家，以他那十分传神的画笔，为我们勾画出一个个栩栩如生的人物画像；又像一位善于捕捉瞬间的雕塑家，以他那锋利的刻刀，为我们塑造了一个个风采各异的雕像。在《史记》这座人物画廊里，我们不仅可以看到历史上那些有作为的王侯将相的英姿，也可以看到妙计藏身的士人食客、百家争鸣的先秦诸子、“为知己者死”的刺客、已诺必诚的游侠、富比王侯的商人大贾，以及医卜、俳优等各种人物的风采，给人以美的享受和思想上的启迪。司马迁创造性地把文、史熔铸于一炉，为我们写下了一部形象的历史。所以，鲁迅先生称赞《史记》为“史家之绝唱，无韵之《离骚》”。正因为如此，在我国浩瀚的史著中，《史记》拥有的读者量是首屈一指的。《史记》在我国比较广泛地传播流行，大约是在东汉中期以后。它成为司马迁著作的专称，也开始于这个时候。在这以前，《史记》都称为《太史公书》、《太史公记》和简称“太史公”。据现知材料考证，最早称司马迁这部史著为《史记》的，是东汉桓帝时写的《东海庙碑》。到唐朝时候，由于古文运动的兴起，文人们对《史记》给予了高度的重视，当时著名散文家韩愈、柳宗元等都对《史记》特别推崇。宋元之后，欧阳修、郑樵、洪迈、王应麟各家，以及明朝的公安派、清朝的桐城派，都十分赞赏《史记》的文笔。于是《史记》的声望与日俱增，各家各派注释和评价《史记》的书也源源不断出现。其中最有影响的是俗称“三家注”的《史记集解》（刘宋时裴骃(裴松之子）注）、《史记索隐》（唐司马贞注 补:司马贞，字子正，唐河内（今沁阳）人。开元中官至朝散大夫，宏文馆学士，主管编纂、撰述和起草诏令等。唐代著名的史学家，著《史记索隐》三十卷，世号“小司马”。司马贞以《史记》旧注音义年远散失，乃采摭南朝宋徐广《史记音义》、裴骃《史记集解》、齐邹诞生《史记集注》、唐刘伯庄《史记音义》、《史记地名》等诸家的注文，参阅韦昭、贾逵、杜预、谯周等人的论著、间己见，撰成对后世很有影响的史学名著《史记索隐》，该书音义并重，注文翔实，对疏误缺略补正颇多，具有极高的史学研究价值，与南朝时期的宋国裴骃的《史记集解》、唐张守节的《史记正义》合称“史记三家注”。后世史学家誉称该书“价值在裴、张两家之上。” ）和《史记正义》（唐张守节注）。《集解》兼采当时裴骃所能见到的前人有关《史记》诸书的研究成果，并一一注明作者名字。一丝不苟。《索隐》进一步指出了《集解》中考证不当的错处。并对《史记》原文提出辨正，发语警辟。《正义》的作者长于舆地之学，对《史记》中地名的考证尤为精辟。读《史记》原文，同时注意看一看这三家注，对原书会有更进一步的理解。1959年中华书局重新标点排印的《史记》，就是与这三家注合刻的本子。裴骃，裴松之的儿子，字龙驹。继承家学，博览宏识，亦以注史著称于世。司马迁的《史记》被誉为“史家之绝唱，无韵之离骚”，裴骃为《史记》作注而垂名于中国史坛。他反复研究《史记》，“服其善序事理，辩而不华，质而不俚，其文直，其事秋，不虚美，不隐恶，故谓之实录”。他博采经传百家及先儒学说，凡对作注有所稗益，便广而录之；凡所注引，务必去其浮言游辞，取其精旨要义；如各家说注不同，则兼收并蓄，不肯偏弃；如有未详之处，宁缺不议，不凭臆想，妄加解说。终于写成《史记集解》八十卷不朽之作，成为现存最早的《史记》注本。与唐司马贞《史记索引》、张守节《史记正义》合称“史记三家注”。由于司马迁受时代的限制，《史记》也存在某些缺点与不足之处。例如，存在“天命”、灾异和历史循环论的神秘思想的影响。在《六国年表序》论述秦并天下的原因时，指出这是“天所助”的结果。《高祖本纪》带有“三统循环论”的色彩，以为“三五之道若循环，终而复始”。在《天官书》中，记述各种特殊的自然天象时，常常与人事联系在一起，更多地表现了灾异的神秘思想。这些说明《史记》在“究天人之际”时，仍然没有摆脱“天人感应”神学思想的影响，等等。《史记》成书后，由于它“是非颇谬于圣人，论大道则先黄老而后六经，序游侠则退处士而进奸雄，述货殖则崇势利而羞贱贫，此其所蔽也。”（《汉书·司马迁传》），被指责为对抗汉代正宗思想的异端代表。因此，在两汉时，《史记》一直被视为离经叛道的“谤书”，不但得不到应有的公正评价，而且当时学者也不敢为之作注释。唐初，《隋书·经籍志》在介绍《史记》、《汉书》的流传时说：“《史记》传者甚微”，司马贞说“汉晋名贤未知见重。”（《史记索隐》序） 我们注意到汉晋时期对《史记》也有一些积极的评价，如西汉刘向、扬雄“皆称迁有良史之材，服其善序事理，辨而不华，质而不俚，其文直，其事核，不虚美，不隐恶，故谓之实录”。 （《汉书·司马迁传》）西晋华峤也说：“迁文直而事核。”（《后汉书·班彪传论》。据李贤注，此句为“华峤之辞”。）在晋代，也有人从简约的角度夸奖《史记》。张辅说：“迁之著述，辞约而事举，叙三千年事唯五十万言。”（《晋书·张辅传》）这些评价虽然不错，但在今天看来，却还远不足以反映出《史记》的特殊地位，因为得到类似评价的史书并不止《史记》一家。如《三国志》作者陈寿，“时人称其善叙事，有良史之才。”（《晋书·陈寿传》）南朝刘勰说“陈寿三志，文质辨恰。”（《文心雕龙?史传》）华峤所撰《后汉书》在西晋也颇受好评，时人以为“峤文质事核，有迁固之规，实录之风”。（《晋书?华峤传》）至于说到简约，那也不是《史记》独有的，如“孙盛《阳秋》，以约举为能”，（《文心雕龙·史传》）干宝《晋纪》，“其书简略，直而能婉，咸称良史”。（《晋书·干宝传》）总之，在相当长的一段时间里，人们并没有把《史记》看得很特殊。这与我们对待《史记》的态度大不相同。 自宋以后，研究《史记》的著述增多了，较有代表性的如清梁玉绳的《史记志疑》、崔适的《史记探源》、张森楷的《史记新校注》、日本学者泷川资言的《史记会注考证》，以及清赵翼的《廿二史札记》和王鸣盛《十七史商榷》的有关部分，都是重要的参考书籍。张文虎著《校刊史记集解索隐正义札记》一书对《史记》的史文及注文进行了精审的校订。他根据钱泰吉的校本和他自己所见到的各种旧刻古本和时本，择善而从，兼采诸家，金陵局本就是经过他的校考之后刊行的。日本学者泷川资言撰《史记会注考证》，《考证》资料比较详实。各种版本《史记》包括标点本多只附录三家注，《考证》则以金陵书局本为底本，引录三家注以来有关中日典籍约一百二十多种，其中国人著作一百零几种，日人著作二十几种，上起盛唐，下迄近代，别择缀辑于注文中，时加审辨说明，将一千二百年来诸家众说，以事串联，较为系统地介绍出来，大大节省搜检群书之劳，为研究者提供极大方便，显然比三家注优越。《考证》资料丰富还表现在《正义》佚文整理上。三家注原各自单独成书，自宋代合刻于《史记》正文下，妄加删削，大失原貌，尤以张守节《正义》最为严重，后世通行本《史记》三家注皆袭此。可是张书既不像《索隐》有单刻本流传，也不像《集解》有宋版《史记》集解本存世，以致佚文极难搜集。泷川从日本所藏几种古本《史记》校记中，辑得《正义》佚文一千二三百条，补入书内。这些资料有人认为并非全部是张书原文，但它们对探求《正义》原貌或理解《史记》，俱有裨益。《考证》内容繁富。裴骃等三家注解一般局限于就事论事，泷川却综合历代研究成果，联比考索，对史实、文字、词语进行考辨、校订、解释，从而揭示出某些史事演变窜易、文字歧异正误、疑难文句意义，以及记载矛盾、失误，等等。对前人未加解说或解之未详的亦往往加以考说。再《史记》一书，多采旧典。泷川常于正文之下，指出此事见于某书；与他书文字有异，也予注明。由于《左传》、《国语》、先秦诸子具在，因而春秋史事出处，几乎逐节逐事交待明白，便于溯本求源，比勘研究。《考证》特别注重地理，每一地名，必注今地名，有助于了解事件的演变和人物的活动。此外，正文、注文全部断句，这在标点本未问世之前，不能不说是一项成果。全书末附有泷川所撰《史记总论》，论述了司马迁事历和《史记》作书资料、体例、流传、演变、版本等事，不失为研究司马迁其人其书的有用材料。应当指出，《考证》一书是有缺点的，有的还是比较突出的。首先在资料方面仍有遗漏，黄震、鲍彪、吴师道、张鹏一、雷学淇等人说法就未罗致。尤其令人遗憾的是，金石文字和近人论著汲取不多，甚至连王国维的《殷卜辞中所见先王先公考》也只字未载。其次在材料抉择去取之间，也有偏守一说、疏漏失当之处；而摘引某些评论，既违背考证体例，见解又颇为迂腐。在某些问题上，则徘徊两可，甚少发明。再次，泷川资言在训诂方面，有时失于强自为解，断句亦有失误。但从总体讲，张森楷《史记新校注稿》虽于六十年代影印问世，却已部份残缺，其他《史记》校证，固不乏精审之作，然未成书，因此《考证》纵然有不少缺点，仍瑕不掩瑜。在当前《史记》新集释性注本未出现之前，《考证》堪称是资料最丰富的《史记》注本，是研治《太史公书》和中国古代史的重要参考书。《考证》虽参校了一些本子，可是不作校记而径改径补。后来水泽利忠在五十年代撰《史记会注考证校补》，以补其阙。它以《考证》本为底本，广校众本达三十多种，参考中日校记资料近四十种。其中宋本八种、元本二种、日本古本四种、炖煌写本残卷三种、日本古抄本残卷十几种，现存版本网罗殆尽。《考证》辑录《正义》佚文，省略出处，《校补》为之一一注明。又据二十多种日本古抄本校记等资料增辑《正义》佚文二百余条，其中保存了少数失传的古书文字。同时对《考证》迻录三家注张冠李戴错误，也加以订正。汇集历代学者的注释，加上他自己的考证，内容相当丰富，造诣非浅。中华书局新标本在总结前人研究成果的基础上，对《史记》重新作了校点。《史记》作为第一部传记文学的确立，是具有世界意义的。过去欧洲人以欧洲为中心，他们称古希腊的普鲁塔克为“世界传记之王”。普鲁塔克大约生于公元46年，死于公元120年，著有《列传》（今本译作《希腊罗马名人传》）50篇，是欧洲传记文学的开端。如果我们把普鲁塔克放到中国古代史的长河里来比较一下，可以发现，普鲁塔克比班固（32—92）还要晚生14年，若和司马迁相比，则要晚生191年了。司马迁的《史记》要比普鲁塔克的《列传》早产生几乎两个世纪。《史记》无论在中国史学史还是在中国文学史上，都堪称是一座伟大的丰碑。史学方面姑且不论，文学方面，它对古代的小说、戏剧、传记文学、散文，都有广泛而深远的影响。首先，从总体上来说，《史记》作为我国第一部以描写人物为中心的大规模作品，为后代文学的发展提供了一个重要基础和多种可能性。《史记》所写的虽然是历史上的实有人物，但是，通过"互见"即突出人物某种主要特征的方法，通过不同人物的对比，以及在细节方面的虚构，实际把人物加以类型化了。在各民族早期文学中，都有这样的现象，这是人类通过艺术手段认识自身的一种方法。只是中国文学最初的类型化人物出现在历史著作中，情况较为特别。由此，《史记》为中国文学建立了一批重要的人物原型。在后代的小说、戏剧中，所写的帝王、英雄、侠客、官吏等各种人物形象，有不少是从《史记》的人物形象演化出来的。在小说方面，除了人物类型，它的体裁和叙事方式也受到《史记》的显著影响。中国传统小说多以"传"为名，以人物传记式的形式展开，具有人物传记式的开头和结尾，以人物生平始终为脉络，严格按时间顺序展开情节，并往往有作者的直接评论，这一切重要特征，主要是渊源于《史记》的。至于直接取材于《史记》的历史小说，那就更不用说了。在戏剧方面，由于《史记》的故事具有强烈的戏剧性，人物性格鲜明，矛盾冲突尖锐，因而自然而然成为后代戏剧取材的宝库。据傅惜华《元代杂剧全目》所载，取材于《史记》的剧目就有180多种。 据李长之统计，在现存132种元杂剧中，有16种采自《史记》的故事。其中包括《赵氏孤儿》这样的具有世界影响的名作。已经失传的类似作品，当然更多。到后来的京剧中，仍然有许多是取材于《史记》的，如众所周知的《霸王别姬》等。在传记文学方面，由于《史记》的纪传体为后代史书所继承，由此产生了大量的历史人物传记。虽然，后代史书的文学性显著不如《史记》，但其数量既浩如瀚海，如果将其中优秀传记提取出来，也是极为可观的。此外，史传以外的别传、家传、墓志铭等各种形式的传记，也与《史记》所开创的传记文学传统有渊源关系。《史记》固然"究无人之际，通古今之变，成一家之言"，从而开创了史学的种种先河，也堪称是脍炙人口的文学佳作，但《史记》最为耀眼的闪光点在于它的平民立场。在司马迁的《史记》之前，所谓的历史仅仅是王侯的发家史、光荣史、太平史。在司马迁的《史记》里，自以为功高盖世的帝王们同样有无耻、暴戾、虚假和懦弱的一面；虽然有着种种的过失和缺点并最终兵败陔下，自刎乌江的楚霸王项羽不失为顶天立地的英雄；一介布衣陈胜曾经在田间耕作，既是不折不扣的庄稼汉，也是满怀鸿鹄之志的豪杰，正是他第一个揭竿而起反抗秦的暴政；就在正统文人对浪迹江湖的行径嗤之以鼻的时候，司马迁却对荆轲、唐雎等四海漂泊的游侠们和快意恩仇的游侠精神赞誉有加、不胜神往……《史记》就是这样以平民的立场、平民的视角、平民的情感看历史、写历史、评说历史，从而第一次给历史以真实可亲的面 目，第一次给那些值得尊敬的灵魂们以尊严。清朝诗人宋湘曾经有句诗说："史有龙门诗少陵"，《史记》中所透出的民间精神，再现在杜甫那些忧国忧民的不朽诗作中，并成为流传千古的力量源泉。自汉至清,《史记》的研究专著达101部,单篇论文1435篇,囊括了名物典章、地理沿革、文字校勘、音韵训诂、版本源流以及疏解、读法、评注等领域,方法是抄摄材料,排比引证,基本是微观的甲说乙说的"文献"研究。详见中国科学院历史研究所第一、二所合编的《史记研究的资料和论文索引》，也可参阅载于《中国历史文献研究集刊》第四集的陈乃乾《二十四史注补表谱考证书籍简目》。他们所举较为重要的有：清钱大昕《廿二史考异》和《考史拾遗》。清王鸣盛《十七史商榷》和清赵翼《廿二史札记》中有关前四史部分，清梁玉绳《史记志疑》，清郭嵩焘《史记札记》，清沈家本《史记琐言》，近人陈直《史记新证》。上述诸书中，清人之作以钱大昕、梁玉绳、郭嵩焘之作最为特出。近人陈直之作，则多取甲骨文、金文及秦汉权量、石刻、竹简、铜器、陶器之铭文印证《史记》，独辟蹊径，创获尤多。因所著《汉书新证》成书在前，《史记新证》稿中关于汉武帝以前西汉史之考证与之重复者，均已删去。《史记》是我国历史学上一个划时代的标志，是一部“究天人之际，通古今之变，成一家之言”的伟大著作，是司马迁对我国民族文化特别是历史学方面的极其宝贵的贡献。全书包括本纪、表、书、世家和列传，共一百三十篇，五十二万六千五百字。“本纪”除《秦本纪》外，叙述历代最高统治者帝王的政迹；“表”是各个历史时期的简单大事记，是全书叙事的联络和补充；“书”是个别事件的始末文献，它们分别叙述天文、历法、水利、经济、文化、艺术等方面的发展和现状，与后世的专门科学史相近；“世家”主要叙述贵族侯王的历史；“列传”主要是各种不同类型、不同阶层人物的传记，少数列传则是叙述国外和国内少数民族君长统治的历史。《史记》就是通过这样五种不同的体例和它们之间的相互配合和补充而构成了完整的体系。它的记事，上自黄帝，下至武帝太初(前104—101)年间，全面地叙述了我国上古至汉初三千年来的政治、经济、文化多方面的历史发展，是我国古代历史的伟大总结。汇集《史记》各家注释考订之作，有近人张森楷《史记新校注稿》，成书于二十年代，惜未定稿。1967 年由杨家骆编纂整理，交由台湾中国学典馆筹备处印行，但文有残缺。南京图书馆收藏有张森楷《史记新斠注》稿本。从文学研究来看,因时代文化环境与研究者知识场域的局限,近代以前的学者多侧重于感性的直观式评点的单篇读感,缺少具有综合性、逻辑性的宏观义理阐释和文、史兼顾的文学本体论分析。20世纪以来,司马迁与《史记》的学术研究队伍日益壮大,学者除了对司马迁生年、生平、家世和《史记》的名称、断限、体制、取材、篇章残缺与补窜、义例等具体问题的考

历史教育论文参考文献

历史教育论文参考文献有哪些呢?历史教育论文参考文献是撰写历史教育论文的重要的组成部分。欢迎阅读我整理的历史教育论文参考文献，希望能够帮到大家。

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