only found one. hope that works~American table manners[edit] Table Layout * Bread plates are to the left of the main plate, beverage glasses are to the right. * Salad fork, knife and soup spoon are further from the main plate than the main course knife, fork and spoon. Dessert utensils are either placed above the main plate or served with dessert.[edit] General Behavior * Chew with your mouth closed. * Do not talk at an excessively loud volume. * Refrain from coughing, sneezing or blowing nose at the table. * Never tilt back your chair while at the table, or at any other time. * Do not make unbecoming noises while eating. * Do not play with food or table utensils. * Do not single out or chastise someone who has shown poor table manners. * Do not put your elbows on the table or slouch. * Always ask the host or hostess to be excused before leaving the table. * Do not stare at anyone while he or she is eating. * Never talk on your phone at the table. If urgent, ask host or hostess to be excused, and go outside. Apologize when returned.[edit] Utensils * Do not eat food with your fingers unless you are eating foods customarily eaten with fingers, such as bread, french fries, chicken wings, pizza, etc. * The fork may be used either in the American (use the fork in your left hand while cutting; switch to right hand to pick up and eat a piece) or the Continental (fork remains in the left hand) fashion -- either is now acceptable. (See Fork etiquette) * The fork is used to convey any solid food to the mouth. * The knife blade should be placed on the edge of your plate when not in use. The blade should always face inward. * When you have finished eating soup, the spoon should be placed to the side of the saucer, not left in the bowl. * Keep your napkin on your lap. At more formal occasions all diners will wait to place their napkins on their laps until the host or hostess places his or her napkin on his or her lap * When eating barbecue or some other messy foods such as cracked crab, a 'bib' napkin may be provided for and used by adults. Usually these foods are also eaten by hand, and wet wipes or paper napkins should be used to clean the hands. * When using paper napkins, never ball them up or allow stains to show. * Use your silverware from the outside moving inward toward the main plate. (Salad fork, knife and soup spoon are further from the main plate than the main course knife, fork and spoon. Dessert utensils are either placed above the main plate or served with dessert.)[edit] Dining * A prayer or 'blessing' may be customary in some families, and the guests should join in even if they are not religious or do not follow the same religion. Most prayers are made by the host before the meal is eaten. Instead or in addition, a 'toast' may be offered [1]. * Do not start eating until (a) every person is served or (b) those who have not been served request that you begin without waiting. At more formal occasions all diners will wait to begin until the hostess or host lifts a fork or spoon. * When a dish is presented 'family style', the food is served to one's plate and then passed on to the next person. put the food on your left, take some and pass to the person next to you. * When serving, serve from the left and pick up the dish from the right. Beverages are both served and removed from the right. * Eat soup noiselessly and with the side of the spoon. * Tea or coffee should never be poured into the saucer to cool but should be sipped from the cup. Alternatively, ice may be used to cool either. * Seasoning ones meal prior to tasting can be considered rude and may insult the chef.[edit] At the end of the meal * It is acceptable in most places to not finish all of the food on your plate. * When finished with your meal, place your knife and fork with handles at the 4 o'clock position and the tines of the fork down to signal to the server you are done. * Except in a public restaurant, do not ask to take some of your uneaten food away from the meal after it ends, especially when having a formal dinner.[edit] British table manners * The fork is held in your left hand and the knife is held in your right. * You should hold your knife with the handle in your palm and your fork in the other hand with the prongs pointing downwards. * If you’re eating a dessert, your fork (if you have one) should be held in the left hand and the spoon in the right. * When eating soup, you should hold your spoon in your right hand and tip the bowl away from you, scooping the soup in movements away from yourself. * It is not acceptable to use your fingers at the table to eat or push food onto your fork. You may, however, eat some foods such as fruit, sandwiches, hamburgers, crisps, chips or pizza with your fingers. * If there are a number of knives or forks, then you should start from the outside set working your way in as each course is served. * Drinks should always be to the right of your plate with the bread roll to the left. * When eating bread rolls, break off a piece before buttering. Use your knife only to butter the bread, not to cut it. * You should not start eating before your host does or instructs you to do so. At larger meals, it is considered okay to start eating once others have been served. * When you’re finished, place your knife and fork together at five o’clock with your fork on the left (tines facing up) and knife on the right, with the knife blade facing in. This signals that you are finished. * Your napkin should never be screwed up. Nor should it be folded neatly as that would suggest that your host might plan to use it again without washing it - just leave is neatly but loosely. * Never blow your nose on your napkin. Place it on your lap and use it to dab your mouth if you make a mess. * It is considered rude to answer the telephone at the table. If you need to take an urgent call, excuse yourself and go outside. * Always ask for permission from the host and excuse yourself if you need to leave the table. You should place your napkin on your seat until you return. * If you must leave the table or are resting, your fork should be at eight o’clock and your knife at four o’clock (with the blade inwards). Once an item of cutlery has been used, it should not touch the table again. * The food should be brought to your mouth on the fork; you should sit straight and not lean towards your plate. * Dishes should be served from the right, and taken away from the right. Unless the food is placed on your plate at the table, then it should arrive from the left. * Drinks should be served from the right. * Never lean across somebody else’s plate. If you need something to be passed, ask the person closest to it. If you have to pass something, only pass it if you are closest to it and pass it directly to them if you can. * Salt & pepper should be passed together. * Do not take food from a neighbour’s plate and don’t ask to do so. * You must not put your elbows on the table. * If pouring a drink for yourself, offer to pour a drink for your neighbours before serving yourself. * If extra food is on the table, ask others first if they would like it before taking it yourself. * When chewing food, close your mouth and only talk when you have swallowed it. * Swallow all food before eating more or having a drink. * Do not slurp your food or eat loudly. Burping or sneezing at the table should be avoided, too. * Never pick food out of your teeth with your fingernails. * Try to eat all the food you are served. * Glasses served in a wine glass or other stemmed-glass should be held at the stem. * Always remember “regular” manners. Remember to say "please" and "thank you".[edit] Chinese table mannersThese are mostly concerned with the use of chopsticks. Otherwise generally Chinese table manners are rather more informal, what would be considered rude in other cultures such as talking with the mouth full may be acceptable but better not to do so. * Chopsticks must always be held in the correct manner. It should be held between the thumb and fingers of the right hand, * Chopsticks are traditionally held in the right hand only, even by the left-handed. Although chopsticks may now be found in either hand, a few still consider left-handed chopstick use improper etiquette. One explanation for the treatment of such usage as improper is that this can symbolise argument, as the chopsticks may collide between the left-handed and right-handed user. * When communal chopsticks are supplied with shared plates of food, it is considered impolite to use your own chopsticks to pick up the food from the shared plate or eat using the communal chopsticks. An exception to this rule is made in intimate family dinners where family members may not mind the use of one's own chopsticks to transfer food. * It is considered impolite to use the blunt end of the chopsticks to transfer food from a common dish to your own plate or bowl. Use the communal chopsticks instead. * Never wave your chopsticks around as if they were an extension of your hand gestures, bang them like drumsticks, or use them to move bowls or plates. * Decide what to pick up before reaching with chopsticks. Do not hover around or poke looking for special ingredients. After you have picked up an item, do not put it back in the dish. * When picking up a piece of food, never use the tips of your chopsticks to poke through the food as if you were using a fork. Exceptions include tearing larger items apart such as vegetables. In informal use, small, difficult to pick-up items such as cherry tomatoes or fishballs may be stabbed but this use is frowned upon by traditionalists. * Chopsticks can be rested horizontally on one's plate or bowl to keep them off the table entirely. A chopstick rest can also be used to keep the points off the table. * Never stab chopsticks into a bowl of rice, leaving them standing upwards. Any stick-like object facing upward resembles the incense sticks that some Asians use as offerings to deceased family members. This is considered the ultimate faux pas on the dining table. * Chinese traditionally eat rice from a small bowl held in the left hand. The rice bowl is raised to the mouth and the rice pushed into the mouth using the chopsticks. Some Chinese find it offensive to scoop rice from the bowl using a spoon. If rice is served on a plate, as is more common in the West, it is acceptable and more practical to eat it with a fork or spoon. The thumb must always be above the edge of the bowl. * It is acceptable to transfer food to people who have a close relation with you (. parents, grandparents, children or significant others) if you notice they are having difficulty picking up the food. Also it is a sign of respect to pass food to the elderly first before the dinner starts (part of the Confucian tradition of respecting seniors). * Traditionally, it is polite for the youngest members of the table to address each and everyone of the elderly members of the table before a meal starts and literally tell them to "eat rice", which means "go ahead and start the meal", to show respect. * The host should always make sure the guests drinks are sufficiently full. One should not pour for ones self, but should (if thirsty) offer to pour for a neighbor. When your drink is being poured, you should say "thank you" and/or tap your fingers on the table to show appreciation. * When people wish to clink drinks together in the form of a cheer, it is important to observe that younger members should clink the edge of their drink below the edge of an elder to show respect. * When eating food that contains bones, it is customary that the bones be spit out onto the table to the right of the dining plate in a neat pile.
摘要] 由于自然环境和物产不同,形成了东西方不同的文化,中西饮食便沿着各自的道路发展起来.传统的西方文化是一种畜牧文化和海洋文化,中国文化则是一种农耕文化和陆地文化,两种不同的文化反映出人们生产生活空间和方式的差异,其中饮食是具有代表性的一个方面,从菜单命名使用的词汇即可略见一斑.一、由于自然环境和物产不同,形成了东西方不同的文化,中西饮食便沿着各自的道路发展起来.传统的西方文化是一种畜牧文化和海洋文化,中国文化则是一种农耕文化和陆地文化,两种不同的文化反映出人们生产生活空间和方式的差异,其中饮食是具有代表性的一个方面,从文化命名使用的词汇即可略见一斑.两种饮食文化的差别主要表现在原料种类、烹饪方法、进餐方式、菜式命名等四个方面.(一)原料种类.西餐原料主要是动物类和海洋鱼类,辅以植物类,中餐原料主要是植物类和淡水鱼类,辅以动物类.随着社会发展和中西方交流的增加,两种饮食体系所使用的原料有趋同的趋势,但差别仍然比较明显.中国人视为珍馐美味的猫、狗、鸽子西方人是不会尝试的,而西方人习以为常的海洋鱼类、贝壳类可能为多数内地中国人见所未见,中国人的"食谱"范围比西方人的丰富得多.(二)烹饪方式.这是中西餐饮的一大差别,也是饮食文化差异的隐性因素.烹饪方法的差异又表现在三个方面:首先是原料的粗加工,所谓"食不厌精、脍不厌细",基础就是原料的粗加工,中餐对此十分讲究,加工后的原料形状多种多样,有整体(Whole)、块(Cubes)、片(Slices)、卷(Rolls)、条(Strips)、段(Segments)、丝(Shreds)、丁(Dice)、粒(Grains)、末(Mince)、蓉(泥)(Mash)、浆(Thickliq 2uid)、汁(Juice)等,西餐原料的处理则较为简单,一般有整体、块、片、丁、泥等几种形状;其次是火候,中式烹调讲究用火,三十多种加工方法许多是西餐中没有的,西餐烹调加工时间较短、火温适中;三是调味,中餐的复合味型多,要求原料入味,西餐则强调原料本味及调料的独立使用.(三)进餐方式.这是中西饮食文化差异的显性因素,也是中西方文化中的社会心理、价值观、民族习俗方面的差异在饮食上的表现.刀叉与筷子、圆桌与条桌等各不相同,在菜式和道数上双方虽然都有程式,但一分一合,互相对立,由此产生的宴请礼仪、饮酒方式、席间气氛也大不相同.(四)菜式命名.中餐讲究"作",西餐注重"吃",中菜命名讲究文雅、含蓄和吉利,注重表情、联想功能,寓情、寓意,便使用了多种修辞手法,除少量大众化菜肴以原料直接命名外,相当一部分菜是以创始人、景物、典故和传闻来命名的,这种命名方法的缺点是菜名与原料无明显关联,往往不知所云,如"八仙过海""、佛跳墙"等.西菜命名则直截了当,突出原料,极少使用类似中菜命名的修辞手段,虽少了艺术性,但多了实用性.当然,西菜命名也讲究高雅,但表现方法则是以法文命名."WhenwetalkofmeatonourtableweuseFrenchwords,(porc)(boeuf).Chickensbecomepoultry(poulet),andacalfbecomesveal(veau).EvenifourmenuswerenotwritteninFrenchoutofsnobbery,theEnglishweusedinthemwouldstillbeNormanEnglish."《(高级英语》P28)这是由于罗曼人曾经征服英国,英国农民在牧养牲畜时,讲的是盎格鲁-撒克逊英语,而这些牲畜被端到餐桌上给法国统治者享用时,就有了法语名称,相沿成习,它变成了一种高雅.另外,由于菜单源于法国以及法国饮食文化对西方饮食文化的深远影响,许多西餐菜肴自然用了法语名称,如:胡萝卜蓉汤(Pureealacrecy)、罗宋汤(Bor2schalaRusse)、芝士左口鱼(Fletanalamornay)等.二、中餐菜单英译的基本原则中餐曾有"食单"而无菜单,它和"番茄"、"洋芋"一样来自于西方,并很快融入中国饮食文化,形成了自己的特色,成为餐饮业不可或缺的一项"硬件".随着东西方文化交流的更加深入和广泛,来到中国的外宾越来越多,一张好的菜单就是一份高明的宣传单,一份本土化的菜单将使他们的中国之行更加完满.菜单最初只是厨师备忘的单子,但今非昔比,当今菜单有了更多功能:11向客人说明食品饮料的种类和价格,便于顾客挑选;21反映餐厅的经营方针,标志着餐厅商品的特色和标准;31是客人和接待者之间的沟通渠道;41是菜品研究的资料;51加强宣传,促进销售.小小菜单,作用多多.由于东西方文化和食物原料、制作方法存在诸多差异,菜单的翻译远不象想象的那么简单.影响菜单翻译的最重要因素是烹饪方法和菜式命名,翻译时应把握好二者的特点,既要符合西餐菜肴命名习惯,又要体现中餐特色,切忌望文生义或按字面含义直译.翻译过程中必须把握以下六个原则:第一,注重菜单的信息功能,保证菜名提供准确、足够的信息,而不能简单地按照中菜名称的修饰词而直译,以便外宾选择.如"麻婆豆腐"译成"Pockmarkedwoman'sbeancurd"、"八仙过海"译为"EightImmortalscrossingthesea"",鱼香肉丝"译为"Fish-flavorshreddedpork"就会使外宾茫然或误解.第二,要发挥菜单的促销作用.应借鉴中菜命名的艺术手法,尽量反映中餐烹饪特色,尤其对一些历史悠久、流传广泛的菜肴在翻译后还可以附加说明.这样既保留菜名信息,又引人兴趣,以达到吸引食客的目的.第三,把握中餐烹调方法的类别.为反映中餐对火候的讲究和其艺术性,可进行适当修饰.中餐烹调方法分类如下:烧、烧、烩、 、焖Braise炖、煨Stew煎、炸、酥Deep-fry爆、炒、熘、滑Stir-fry、Quick-fry干炒、干煸、焙Sauté煮、汆、涮、白灼Boil烧、烤、烘、 Roast、Barbecue、Broil、Bake蒸、腌、卤、酱、熏、酿、扒、烫、糟等有对等词,可一对一翻译,较特殊的做法如"油淋"可归入"煎炸"类,西餐没有拔丝方法,类似方法有Candy、Toffee.第四,尽量译出原料加工后的形状.原料形状在西餐中并不重要,但在中餐中却能反映出烹调的技艺水平,译文应予保留,确实累赘的,则可省略.第五,把握原料这一核心,无论中菜如何命名,均须翻译出原料,再加上烹调方法和味型等辅助因素.第六,避免文化冲突.中菜命名为了吉祥,借用了一些不能食用的物品或西方人忌讳食用的动物名,翻译时应按原料名直译,如果原料本身是西方人忌食的,这道菜可省略不译.如"翡翠鱼翅"、"红烧狮子头",真正的翡翠当然不能食用的,其实它就是蔬菜,而狮子西方人更不会食用,我们也是以其威武来形容"肉圆"罢了,直译会引起"血腥"的感觉.又如"脆皮乳鸽",将象征着和平的鸽子烹而食之,也是西方人不能接受的,所以最好把它略过.三、中餐菜名英译的具体探讨上面提出了中餐菜单英译的六原则,下面就一些中餐菜名英译进行具体探讨.11以原料命名的菜不加修辞,直译最为简便,烹饪方法不必译出.中菜汤类命名一般按此方法,翻译的处理就是"原料加汤".如:双冬牛肉-Beefwithmushroomandbambooshouts口蘑菜心-Mushroomswithcabbageheart青椒肉丝-Shreddedporkandgreenchili豆腐汤-Beancurdwithmushroomsoup21以烹调方法加原料命名.因为烹调方法是饮食文化的核心组成部分,翻译时必须译出烹调方法.中菜的一些烹调方法是西餐所没有的,有些则相近,翻译时用近义词亦可.如"干煸"在西餐中没有,其操作过程是:先用油炸原料,然后以少许油翻炒,迅速将油炒干后起锅,并不是加油直接炒.英语中有两个字与之意义相近,一是sauté--friedquicklyinapanwithalittlehotbutterorotherfat.意识是"快炸、煎";一是torrefy--todryuporparchwithheat(.)意识是"烘干、烤干、焙干",从制作过程看,sauté更合适些.如:炸蛋卷-Deep-friedeggrolls回锅肉-Slicedporkdoublysautéedinsoysauce干煸牛肉丝-Sautéedbeefshreds31烹调方式加原料和作料命名.作料是决定味型的最重要因素,翻译时也不能省略.如豉汁蒸带子,省略作料就成了清蒸,味道完全不同.酱爆肉去掉"soypaste",成了无任何特点的"煎肉",二者有天渊之别.其它如:豉汁蒸带子-Steamedscallopswithcuredsoybean酱爆肉-Quick-friedporkwithsoypaste茄汁石斑鱼-Deepfriedgaroupawithtomatosauce41风味菜肴.风味菜主要因其味型特点而得以广泛流传,所以除原料外,应译出风味,一些有确切起源地的菜,还应该加上地名.鱼香肉丝的确切译名应为"Stir-friedporkshredsSichuanstyle"或"Stir-friedporkshredsingarlicsauce",不能译为"Fish-flavorshreddedpork",是因为"鱼香"作为川菜的一种风味,使用了固定搭配的作料,与真正的鱼没有任何关系,译为"Fish-flavor",菜中并无"Fish",给人以误导之嫌.其他风味菜还有:湘味牛肉丝-SlicedbeefHunanstyle糖醋排骨-Friedporkchopinsweet-soursauce荷叶粉蒸肉-Steamedporkcoatedgroundriceonlotusleaf51以人名、地名命名的菜肴,一般全部译出,人名前最好加上头衔或职业,对那些知之甚少或译出后外宾不能理解的,则去人名加味型.东坡肉-PoetDongpo'sbraisedpork毛氏红烧肉-ChairmanMao'sstewedporkwithsoysauce北京烤鸭-Beijingroastedduck东江酿豆腐-BeancurdstuffedwithporkminceDongjiangstyle61用象形手法或借用典故、传说命名.这是中菜命名的一个特点,它集中反映了中国饮食文化的特色,具有很深的社会内涵,也是翻译的难点,处理方法是还其本原,译出主料、作料或做法,能兼顾修辞含义时则兼顾,切不可拘泥于原名而直译.翡翠鱼翅-Double-boiledshark'sfinwithve 2getable翡翠不能食用,仅是一个代称,指绿色的蔬菜,翻译时不能按字面译为"Jadeshark'sfin",否则外宾会莫名其妙.蚂蚁上树-Sautéedbeanvermicelliwithspicymeatsauce蚂蚁在中餐中虽可以入菜,但此蚂蚁非彼蚂蚁,而是用酱油和淀粉和过的肉末.直译可能引起外宾的惊诧.桔瓣鱼汆-Quick-boiledfishballsorangepet 2alshaped这道菜是指鱼汆外形似桔瓣,其实菜中无桔瓣,也无桔味,翻译时不可将之作为原料,译名中加"orangepetalshaped",是为了增加美感,增强促销功能.叫化鸡-Bakedchickenvagabondstyle或Bakedchickenwrappedwithmud此菜相传为乞丐创制,取名时以"叫化"代"乞丐",是一种美化,翻译时,以"vagabond"代"beg2gar",也是一种美化.后一译名比较实在,但少了前者的浪漫味道.麻婆豆腐-Beancurdwithmincedporkinhotsauce这道菜在我国广为流传",麻婆"成了一个特殊的称谓,外宾没有它的文化背景,翻译时只能取味型.如将之译为"Pockmarkswoman'sbeancurd",即使外宾理解,也失去了美感.霸王别姬-Steamedturtleandchickeninwhitesauce寿比南山-Steamedchickeninpumpkin连生贵子-Lotusnutsinsyrup这些纯为吉利的象征名称,不仅不能直译,也无法直译,所以只能还原处理.如为了促销,可对这些菜附加说明.71菜名含器具的可译出器具,也可直译原料,作为一种特殊的做法,以译出器具为佳.有加工作用的器具在西餐中是不会搬上桌子的,这也是中餐的一个特点,它表现了中餐的艺术性.器具一般有火锅、锅仔、铁板、沙锅、煲等.八珍火锅-Eightdelicacieshotpot锅仔甲鱼-Braisedturtleinminipot铁板牛柳-Vealslicesfriedonironplate汆圆粉丝煲-Stewedmeatballsandbeanver 2micelliincasserole以上探讨了中菜英译的一些基本方法.由于中国菜种系繁多,原料区别大,烹饪方法各具特色,菜名千差万别,翻译时还需具体研究,否则不能把握其特点,准确翻译也就无从谈起.四、菜单的编排除命名方面的差异外,在菜的分类和编排方式上二者也不相同,这是由于用餐方式和上菜顺序不同所引起的.中餐菜单按原料分类,呈纵向序列,西餐菜单按一次食用菜的道数编排,呈平行并列.中餐菜单菜肴的排列一般是按冷菜凉碟类、肉类、鱼类、海鲜类、禽类、蔬菜类、汤类、点心水果类、主食类的顺序进行,饮料酒类单列.西餐菜单菜肴的排列则按进食顺序安排,分为开胃菜类(APPETIZERS)、汤类(SOUPS)、色拉类(SAL2ADS)、主菜类(ENTREES)(包括肉类、鱼类、海鲜
1 浅析中西方餐桌礼仪存在差异的原因 张文娟 现代商业 2009/04 2 中西方饮食文化差异以及餐桌礼仪的对比 张亚红 边疆经济与文化 2009/04 [1] 王隽. 东西方文化差异浅谈[J]. 云梦学刊 , 2006,(02) [2] 曾利娟. 文化差异对跨文化交际的影响[J]. 郑州大学学报(哲学社会科学版) , 2001,(05) [3] 高凤霞. 跨文化交际中的文化差异[J]. 商丘职业技术学院学报 , 2005,(01) [4] 肖利华. 文化差异解读在跨文化交际中的地位和作用[J]. 湖南行政学院学报 , 2003,(02) [5] 屈虹. 略论跨文化交际中的文化差异现象[J]. 郴州师范高等专科学校学报 , 2000,(01) [6] 赵东. 文化差异与跨文化交际能力的培养[J]. 华北煤炭医学院学报 , 2005,(03) [7] 刘淑芳. 跨文化交际与英语教学[J]. 湘潭大学社会科学学报 , 2001,(02) [8] 曾利娟. 文化与外语教学[J]. 郑州航空工业管理学院学报(社会科学版) , 2001,(02) [9] 潘克, 唐祥金. 跨文化交际能力与深层的文化差异[J]. 保定师范专科学校学报 , 2007,(02) [10] 王红丽. 文化差异与大学生跨文化交际能力的培养[J]. 河南财政税务高等专科学校学报 , 2004,(04)
序号 题名 作者 作者单位 文献来源 发表时间 被引频次 下载频次1 中西方饮食文化对比研究(英文) 郭倩倩 山西财经大学 商品与质量 2010-10-15 1412 中西方饮食文化中的饮食礼仪差异 张彩霞 郑州大学外语学院 【期刊】安徽文学(下半月) 2009-11-15 1 8623 从饮食文化差异分析奥运菜单的翻译方法 郁青青 连云港师范高等专科学校外语系 【期刊】连云港师范高等专科学校学报 2009-06-25 1 2304 民族文化心理与饮食习俗的跨文化对比分析 滕延江; 王勇 烟台师范学院; 潍坊学院 山东烟台; 山东潍坊 【期刊】潍坊学院学报 2005-10-25 5 8645 由“佛跳墙”和肯德基炸鸡看中西方饮食文化的差异 李凤凤 中国地质大学（武汉）外国语学院 【期刊】消费导刊 2009-06-23 3146 跨文化交际中的饮食文化差异 陈歆 苏州经贸职业技术学院 江苏苏州 【期刊】职业圈 2007-10-15 1 10897 试论中西饮食文化的差异 蔡华 长沙南方职业学院外语系 湖南 长沙 【期刊】邵阳学院学报(社会科学版) 2007-04-15 3 23398 跨文化交际中饮食文化差异研究 陈歆 苏州经贸职业技术学院 【期刊】边疆经济与文化 2008-08-05 0 9739 浅谈中西方饮食文化差异 李晓红; 马陶然 河北科技大学外国语学院 【期刊】时代文学(下半月) 2010-04-15 41410 从中西饮食看文化多样性 任杰慧 北京科技大学冶金与生态工程学院 【期刊】南宁职业技术学院学报 2010-09-30 11311 中西方饮食文化差异与中餐菜单的翻译 袁晓红; 唐丽霞 长春师范学院; 长春广播电视大学 【期刊】吉林广播电视大学学报 2009-03-15 3 111512 浅谈中西文化差异 张仰媚 菏泽学院外国语系 【期刊】民营科技 2009-03-20 1 73213 中西方饮食文化差异以及餐桌礼仪的对比 张亚红 哈尔滨师范大学西语学院 【期刊】边疆经济与文化 2009-04-05 1 275014 浅谈中西方饮食观念的差别 王长友 延边大学外国语学院 【期刊】宿州教育学院学报 2009-08-20 1 65415 中式菜单的英译 邢海芳; 刘洪泉 湖北荆州长江大学 【期刊】商业文化(学术版) 2008-12-25 0 13116 对中国餐饮业发展情况的分析 雷锬 广东技术师范学院经济与贸易学院 【期刊】经济师 2010-04-05 38517 中国饮食文化的他者形象——评《华女阿五》和《女勇士》(英文) 陈天然 【会议】福建省外文学会2007年会暨华东地区第四届外语教学研讨会论文集 2007-12-01 0 10118 中西菜肴命名对比及中式菜肴英译方法探究 卢巧丹; 卢燕飞 浙江大学外国语言文化与国际交流学院 【期刊】沈阳农业大学学报(社会科学版) 2008-09-15 0 24719 中西餐服务之比较 郭剑英 扬州大学旅游烹饪学院 【期刊】中国烹饪研究 1998-08-15 0 207
only found one. hope that works~American table manners[edit] Table Layout * Bread plates are to the left of the main plate, beverage glasses are to the right. * Salad fork, knife and soup spoon are further from the main plate than the main course knife, fork and spoon. Dessert utensils are either placed above the main plate or served with dessert.[edit] General Behavior * Chew with your mouth closed. * Do not talk at an excessively loud volume. * Refrain from coughing, sneezing or blowing nose at the table. * Never tilt back your chair while at the table, or at any other time. * Do not make unbecoming noises while eating. * Do not play with food or table utensils. * Do not single out or chastise someone who has shown poor table manners. * Do not put your elbows on the table or slouch. * Always ask the host or hostess to be excused before leaving the table. * Do not stare at anyone while he or she is eating. * Never talk on your phone at the table. If urgent, ask host or hostess to be excused, and go outside. Apologize when returned.[edit] Utensils * Do not eat food with your fingers unless you are eating foods customarily eaten with fingers, such as bread, french fries, chicken wings, pizza, etc. * The fork may be used either in the American (use the fork in your left hand while cutting; switch to right hand to pick up and eat a piece) or the Continental (fork remains in the left hand) fashion -- either is now acceptable. (See Fork etiquette) * The fork is used to convey any solid food to the mouth. * The knife blade should be placed on the edge of your plate when not in use. The blade should always face inward. * When you have finished eating soup, the spoon should be placed to the side of the saucer, not left in the bowl. * Keep your napkin on your lap. At more formal occasions all diners will wait to place their napkins on their laps until the host or hostess places his or her napkin on his or her lap * When eating barbecue or some other messy foods such as cracked crab, a 'bib' napkin may be provided for and used by adults. Usually these foods are also eaten by hand, and wet wipes or paper napkins should be used to clean the hands. * When using paper napkins, never ball them up or allow stains to show. * Use your silverware from the outside moving inward toward the main plate. (Salad fork, knife and soup spoon are further from the main plate than the main course knife, fork and spoon. Dessert utensils are either placed above the main plate or served with dessert.)[edit] Dining * A prayer or 'blessing' may be customary in some families, and the guests should join in even if they are not religious or do not follow the same religion. Most prayers are made by the host before the meal is eaten. Instead or in addition, a 'toast' may be offered [1]. * Do not start eating until (a) every person is served or (b) those who have not been served request that you begin without waiting. At more formal occasions all diners will wait to begin until the hostess or host lifts a fork or spoon. * When a dish is presented 'family style', the food is served to one's plate and then passed on to the next person. put the food on your left, take some and pass to the person next to you. * When serving, serve from the left and pick up the dish from the right. Beverages are both served and removed from the right. * Eat soup noiselessly and with the side of the spoon. * Tea or coffee should never be poured into the saucer to cool but should be sipped from the cup. Alternatively, ice may be used to cool either. * Seasoning ones meal prior to tasting can be considered rude and may insult the chef.[edit] At the end of the meal * It is acceptable in most places to not finish all of the food on your plate. * When finished with your meal, place your knife and fork with handles at the 4 o'clock position and the tines of the fork down to signal to the server you are done. * Except in a public restaurant, do not ask to take some of your uneaten food away from the meal after it ends, especially when having a formal dinner.[edit] British table manners * The fork is held in your left hand and the knife is held in your right. * You should hold your knife with the handle in your palm and your fork in the other hand with the prongs pointing downwards. * If you’re eating a dessert, your fork (if you have one) should be held in the left hand and the spoon in the right. * When eating soup, you should hold your spoon in your right hand and tip the bowl away from you, scooping the soup in movements away from yourself. * It is not acceptable to use your fingers at the table to eat or push food onto your fork. You may, however, eat some foods such as fruit, sandwiches, hamburgers, crisps, chips or pizza with your fingers. * If there are a number of knives or forks, then you should start from the outside set working your way in as each course is served. * Drinks should always be to the right of your plate with the bread roll to the left. * When eating bread rolls, break off a piece before buttering. Use your knife only to butter the bread, not to cut it. * You should not start eating before your host does or instructs you to do so. At larger meals, it is considered okay to start eating once others have been served. * When you’re finished, place your knife and fork together at five o’clock with your fork on the left (tines facing up) and knife on the right, with the knife blade facing in. This signals that you are finished. * Your napkin should never be screwed up. Nor should it be folded neatly as that would suggest that your host might plan to use it again without washing it - just leave is neatly but loosely. * Never blow your nose on your napkin. Place it on your lap and use it to dab your mouth if you make a mess. * It is considered rude to answer the telephone at the table. If you need to take an urgent call, excuse yourself and go outside. * Always ask for permission from the host and excuse yourself if you need to leave the table. You should place your napkin on your seat until you return. * If you must leave the table or are resting, your fork should be at eight o’clock and your knife at four o’clock (with the blade inwards). Once an item of cutlery has been used, it should not touch the table again. * The food should be brought to your mouth on the fork; you should sit straight and not lean towards your plate. * Dishes should be served from the right, and taken away from the right. Unless the food is placed on your plate at the table, then it should arrive from the left. * Drinks should be served from the right. * Never lean across somebody else’s plate. If you need something to be passed, ask the person closest to it. If you have to pass something, only pass it if you are closest to it and pass it directly to them if you can. * Salt & pepper should be passed together. * Do not take food from a neighbour’s plate and don’t ask to do so. * You must not put your elbows on the table. * If pouring a drink for yourself, offer to pour a drink for your neighbours before serving yourself. * If extra food is on the table, ask others first if they would like it before taking it yourself. * When chewing food, close your mouth and only talk when you have swallowed it. * Swallow all food before eating more or having a drink. * Do not slurp your food or eat loudly. Burping or sneezing at the table should be avoided, too. * Never pick food out of your teeth with your fingernails. * Try to eat all the food you are served. * Glasses served in a wine glass or other stemmed-glass should be held at the stem. * Always remember “regular” manners. Remember to say "please" and "thank you".[edit] Chinese table mannersThese are mostly concerned with the use of chopsticks. Otherwise generally Chinese table manners are rather more informal, what would be considered rude in other cultures such as talking with the mouth full may be acceptable but better not to do so. * Chopsticks must always be held in the correct manner. It should be held between the thumb and fingers of the right hand, * Chopsticks are traditionally held in the right hand only, even by the left-handed. Although chopsticks may now be found in either hand, a few still consider left-handed chopstick use improper etiquette. One explanation for the treatment of such usage as improper is that this can symbolise argument, as the chopsticks may collide between the left-handed and right-handed user. * When communal chopsticks are supplied with shared plates of food, it is considered impolite to use your own chopsticks to pick up the food from the shared plate or eat using the communal chopsticks. An exception to this rule is made in intimate family dinners where family members may not mind the use of one's own chopsticks to transfer food. * It is considered impolite to use the blunt end of the chopsticks to transfer food from a common dish to your own plate or bowl. Use the communal chopsticks instead. * Never wave your chopsticks around as if they were an extension of your hand gestures, bang them like drumsticks, or use them to move bowls or plates. * Decide what to pick up before reaching with chopsticks. Do not hover around or poke looking for special ingredients. After you have picked up an item, do not put it back in the dish. * When picking up a piece of food, never use the tips of your chopsticks to poke through the food as if you were using a fork. Exceptions include tearing larger items apart such as vegetables. In informal use, small, difficult to pick-up items such as cherry tomatoes or fishballs may be stabbed but this use is frowned upon by traditionalists. * Chopsticks can be rested horizontally on one's plate or bowl to keep them off the table entirely. A chopstick rest can also be used to keep the points off the table. * Never stab chopsticks into a bowl of rice, leaving them standing upwards. Any stick-like object facing upward resembles the incense sticks that some Asians use as offerings to deceased family members. This is considered the ultimate faux pas on the dining table. * Chinese traditionally eat rice from a small bowl held in the left hand. The rice bowl is raised to the mouth and the rice pushed into the mouth using the chopsticks. Some Chinese find it offensive to scoop rice from the bowl using a spoon. If rice is served on a plate, as is more common in the West, it is acceptable and more practical to eat it with a fork or spoon. The thumb must always be above the edge of the bowl. * It is acceptable to transfer food to people who have a close relation with you (. parents, grandparents, children or significant others) if you notice they are having difficulty picking up the food. Also it is a sign of respect to pass food to the elderly first before the dinner starts (part of the Confucian tradition of respecting seniors). * Traditionally, it is polite for the youngest members of the table to address each and everyone of the elderly members of the table before a meal starts and literally tell them to "eat rice", which means "go ahead and start the meal", to show respect. * The host should always make sure the guests drinks are sufficiently full. One should not pour for ones self, but should (if thirsty) offer to pour for a neighbor. When your drink is being poured, you should say "thank you" and/or tap your fingers on the table to show appreciation. * When people wish to clink drinks together in the form of a cheer, it is important to observe that younger members should clink the edge of their drink below the edge of an elder to show respect. * When eating food that contains bones, it is customary that the bones be spit out onto the table to the right of the dining plate in a neat pile.
中西文化历来是世界文化的两大派系，而饮食在两个文化中部占有非常重要的地位。中西文化之间的差异从而造就了中西饮食文化的差异，在两种不同的文化背景下，中西方饮食习俗，不论在其观念、性质，还是在其方式、对象等诸多方面，所存在的差异是非常鲜明的。笔者根据自己几十年从事西式餐饮的经验，提出以下几点看法，以供参考。1、中西饮食观念的差异历史上，中国是世界上最古老的国家之一，有5000年的悠久而厚重的历史，创造了无数的灿烂文明，在这种文化蕴藏中，使中国的饮食更加博大精深。随着时间的流逝以及辽阔国土的地域差异，四大菜系逐渐形成，四大菜系自成体系，各有特点，但共同点是用料复杂考究，制作方法复杂，口味、菜式多种多样，令人惊叹。西方以欧美为代表，其文化同样源远流长。到中世纪，欧洲文化已十分完善，在此期间，旧西方的饮食文化已经形成。其主要特点为：主食以面粉为主，原料也较为丰富，制作方法较中国简单，但同时也十分注重口味。由于中西哲学思想的不同，西方人于饮食重科学。重科学即讲求营养。故西方饮食以营养为最高准则，进食犹如为一生物的机器添加燃料，特别讲求食物的营养成分，蛋白质、脂肪、碳水化合物、维生素及各类无机元素的含量是否搭配合宜，热量的供给是否恰到好处以及这些营养成分是否能为进食者充分吸收，有无其他副作用。这些问题都是烹调中的大学问，而菜肴的色、香、味如何，则是次一等的要求。即或在西方首屈一指的饮食大国——法国，其饮食文化虽然在很多方面与我们近似，但一接触到营养问题，双方便拉开了距离。中国五味调和的烹调术旨在追求美味，其加工过程中的热油炸和长时间的文火攻，都会使菜肴的营养成分被破坏。法国烹调虽亦追求美味，但同时总不忘“营养”这一大前提，一味含营养而求美味是他们所不取的。尤其是20世纪60年代出现的现代烹调思想，特别强调养生、减肥，从而追求清淡少油，强调采用新鲜原料，强调烹调过程中保持原有的营养成分和原有的味道，所以蔬菜基本上都是生吃。所以说西方饮食之重营养是带有普遍性的。2、中西饮食对象的差异西方人认为菜肴是充饥的，所以专吃大块肉、整块鸡等“硬菜”；而中国的菜肴是“吃味”的。所以中国烹调在用料上也显出极大的随意性：许多西方人视为弃物的东西，在中国都是极好的原料，外国厨师无法处理的东西，一到中国厨师手里，就可以化腐朽为神奇。足见中国饮食在用料方面的随意性之广博。据西方植物学者的调查，中国人吃的菜蔬有600多种，比西方多6倍。实际上，在中国人的菜肴里，素菜是平常食品，荤菜只有在节假日或生活水平较高时，才进入平常的饮食结构，所以自古便有“菜食”之说，菜食在平常的饮食结构中占主导地位。中国人的以植物为主菜，与佛教徒的鼓吹有着千丝万缕的联系。佛教便视动物为“生灵”，而植物则“无灵”，所以，主张素食主义。西方人在介绍自己国家的饮食特点时，觉得比中国更重视营养的合理搭配，有较为发达的食品工业，如罐头、快餐等，虽口味千篇一律，但节省时间，且营养良好。故他们国家的人身体普遍比中国人健壮：高个、长腿、宽大的肩、发达的肌肉；而中国人则显得身材瘦小、肩窄腿短、色黄质弱。有人根据中西方饮食对象的明显差异这一特点，把中国人称为植物性格，西方人称为动物性格。3、中西钦食方式、餐具及礼仪的不同中西方的饮食方式有很大不同，这种差异对民族性格也有影响。在中国，任何一个宴席，不管是什么目的，都只会有一种形式，就是大家团团围坐，共享一席；筵席要用圆桌，这就从形式上造成了一种团结、礼貌、共趣的气氛。美味佳肴放在一桌人的中心，它既是一桌人欣赏、品尝的对象，又是一桌人感情交流的媒介物。人与人相互敬酒、相互让菜、劝菜，在美好的事物面前，体现了人与人之间相互尊重、争让的美德。虽然从卫生的角度看，这种饮食方式有明显的不足之处，但它符合我们民族“大团圆”的普遍心态，反映了中国古典哲学中“和”这个范畴对后代思想的影响，便于集体的情感交流，因而至今难以改革。在餐具方面，差异就更甚明显。众所周知，中国人包括亚洲一些黄种人的国家，使用的是筷子、汤匙，吃饭也用碗盛；而西方人呢，则是盘子盛食物，用刀叉即切即吃，喝汤则有专门的汤匙。筷子与刀叉作为东西方最具代表性的两种餐具，筷子和刀叉影响了东西方不同的生活方式，代表着不同的两种智慧。著名的物理学家、诺贝尔物理奖获得者李政道博士，在接受一位日本记者采访时，也有一段很精辟的论述：“中华民族是个优秀民族，中国人早在春秋战国时期就使用了筷子。如此简单的两根东西，却是高妙绝伦地运用了物理学上的杠杆原理。筷子是人类手指的延伸，手指能做的事它几乎都能做，而且不怕高温与寒冷。真是高明极了!”在礼仪方面，中西两者更显不同。在中国古代，在用餐过程中，就有一套繁文缛节。《礼记·曲记》载：“共食不饱，共饭不择手，毋放饭，……毋固获，毋扬饭，……卒食，客自前跪，撒饭齐以授相者，主人辞于客，然后客坐。”这段话大意主要是：大家共同吃饭时，不可以只顾自己吃饭。如果和别人一起吃饭，必须检查手的清洁。不要把多余的饭放回锅里，不要专占着食物，也不要簸扬着热饭。吃完饭后，客人应该起身向前收拾桌上的盘碟，交给主人，主人跟着起身，请客人不要劳动，然后客人再坐下。这些礼仪有的在现代也是必要的礼貌。在西方宴席上，主人一般只给客人夹一次菜，其余由客人自主食用：若客人不要，也不便硬让人家再吃，也不要按中国人的习惯频频给客人劝酒、夹菜。吃东西时，也不要发出响声，但客人要注意赞赏主人准备的饭菜。若与人谈话，只能与邻座的交谈，不要与距离远的人交谈。4、中西饮食性质的差异饮食观念的不同，使西方饮食倾向于科学、理性，中国饮食倾向于艺术、感性。烹调出自饮食，饮食原来是一个旨在供给维持生命的营养。西方饮食习俗的着重点仅仅是原始的饮食实用性的延伸；而中国饮食习俗中对味的偏重，就把饮食推向了艺术的殿堂。从这两种饮食观可以看出：西方饮食日趋规范化，中，国饮食随意性大。中西方饮食文化差异是明显的，而且各有长处。随着经济全球化及信息变流的加快，中西饮食文化将在碰撞中不断融合，在融合中相互互补。现在的中餐已开始注重食物的营养性、健康性和烹饪的科学性；西餐也开始向中餐的色、香、味、意、形的境界发展。中西餐饮文化将在交流中共同发展。
你可以从以下几点着手： 一．餐桌礼仪概述 1. 餐桌礼仪在中西方文化发展中的地位与作用. 二. 各国间不同的饮食文化 1. 我国饮食文化的发展及餐桌礼仪的形成. 2. 英、法、美、意等国家的饮食文化发展及餐桌礼仪的形成. 3. 用我国的典型食品北京烤鸭与西方国家的火鸡进行对比从而进一步比较两者差异. 4. 从差异中寻求中西文化间的共同点. 5. 形成中西方文化差异的根源. Table Manners The main difference between Chinese and W estern eating habits is that unlike the West, where everyone has their own plate of food, in China the dishes are placed on the table and everybody shares. If you are being treated by a Chinese host, be prepared for a ton of food. Chinese are very proud of their culture of food and will do their best to give you a taste of many different types of cuisine. Among friends, they will just order enough for the people there. If they are taking somebody out for dinner and the relationship is polite to semi-polite, then they will usually order one more dish than the number of guests ( people, five dishes). If it is a business dinner or a very formal occasion, there is likely to be a huge amount of food that will be impopssible to finish. A typical meal starts with garlic. These are followed by the main courses, hot meat and vegetable dishes. Finally a soup is brought out, which is followed by the starchy "staple"food, which is usually rice or noodles or sometimes dumplings. Many Chinese eat rice (or noodles or whatever) last, but if you like to have your rice together with other dishes, you should say so early on. One thing to be aware of is that when eating with a Chinese host, you may find that the person is using their chopsticks to put food in your bowl or plate. This is a sign of politeness. The appropriate thing to do would be to eat the whatever-it-is and say how yummy it is. If you feel uncomfortable with this, you can just say a polite thank you and leave the food there, and maybe cover it up with a little rice when they are not looking. There is a certain amount of leniency involved when dealing with Westerners. So you won't be chastised. Eating No-no's Traditionally speaking, there are many taboos at Chinese tables, but these days not many people pay attention to them. However, there are a few things to keep in mind, especially if you are a guest at a private home. 1) Don't stick your chopsticks upright in the rice bowl. Instead,lay them on your dish. The reason for this is that when somebody dies, the shrine to them contains a bowl of sand or rice with two sticks of incense stuck upright in it. So if you stick your chopsticks in the rice bowl, it looks like this shrine and is equivalent to wishing death upon a person at the table! 2) Make sure the spout of the teapot is not facing anyone. It is impolite to set the teapot down where the spout is facing towards somebody. The spout should always be directed to where nobody is sitting,usually just outward from the table. 3) Don't tap on your bowl with your chopsticks. Beggars tap on their bowls, so this is not polite. Also, in a restaurant, if the food is coming too slow people will tap their bowls. If you are in someone's home, it is like insulting the cook. Eat Local You can get expensive, delicious meals in any of the large hotels, but if you are looking for atmosphere, you have to go to a local joint. Not only is it cheaper, but you can get a good look at the locals and what normal people are like. And what the food lacks in presentation is made up for in the taste. Some restaurants have English menus, but don't count on it. A good way to choose dishes is to look at what othes are eating and point at it for the waitress. The other option is to play "Myatery Dinner," where players randomly point at items in the menu and wait for the surprise dishes to come. Whoever orders the braised dog heart with scallions in shark vomit sauce wins! If you bring your Guide with you, however, you can use the food guide in the back of the book to choose some safe and delicious fare. Also, be sure to sample the local brew, Yanjing Beer. Drining Gan Bei!(cheers!) Alcohol is a big part of eating in Beijing. Especially when dining with Chinese hosts, you can expect the beer to flow freely and many beis to be gan-ed.(Gan Bei literally means "dry the glass")Besides beer, the official Chinese alcoholic beverage is bai jiu, high-proof Chinese liquor made from assorted grains. There are varying degrees of bai jiu, and some are quite good. The Beijing favorite is called Er Guo Tou, which is a whopping 56% alcohol. More expensive and less formidable are Maotai and Wuliangye, which go for about 300-400 yuan per bottle. In comparison, Er Guo Tou costs a modest 4or 5 yuan per ping(bottle). If you are not a drinker, or don't feel up to the challenge, just say "wo bu hui he jiu"(I don't drink). It is generally acceptable to use Coke or tea as an alcohol substitute.
The dining product as a result of factor and so on region characteristic, climatic environment, manners and customs influences, will appear in raw material, the taste, the cooking method, the food habit varying degree difference. Was precisely because of these differences, the dining product had the intense localization. Between China and the West culture's difference has accomplished China and the West diet culture difference, but this kind of difference and gets along with people the philosophy from the West different thinking mode. The Chinese pays great attention “the beauty to unite”, the westerner pays great attention “humanist”. here chats the Western diet culture difference briefly from the following three aspects.
Brief Discussion of cultural differences in the Western diet food products as geographical features, climate environment, customs and other factors, will appear in the raw materials, flavors, cooking methods, eating habits, the different degrees of difference. It is because of these differences, food products have a strong regional. Cultural differences between Chinese and Western food culture creates differences, but this difference different from the Western way of thinking and philosophy of life. Chinese people pay attention to "Heaven", Westerners focus on "people-oriented." Here we briefly turn from the following three differences between Chinese and Western food culture. First, the concept of comparing two different diets focus on "taste" of the Chinese diet, the West is a rational eating. Regardless of food color, aroma, taste, how to shape and nutrition must be assured that one day pay attention to intake of calories, vitamins, protein and so on. Even the same taste, also must eat - because nutritious. The food concepts to the whole of Western philosophy is compatible. Metaphysics is the main features of Western philosophy. The object of study of Western philosophy for the reason of things, things and objects often metaphysical grounds, consistent with each other metaphysical reason, they form a metaphysical philosophy. This philosophy has brought vitality to Western culture, so that in the natural sciences, psychology and methodology to achieve a rapid development. But in other respects, this philosophy advocates greatly impeded the role, such as food culture. In the banquet, you can pay attention to tableware, attention to materials, pay attention to service, attention to vegetables, raw materials, shape and color with respect; but no matter how high-end luxury, from Los Angeles to New York steak is only one flavor, no arts to speak of. As a dish, chicken is chicken, steak is steak, even with matching, that is conducted in the session, a "French-style rack of lamb" while up mashed potatoes, side lean lamb chops, cooked green beans with the other side, plus a few pieces tomato and serve. The color contrast, but the taste of the variety of materials independent of each other, reconcile, each is different in flavor, simple and clear. Chinese people attach great importance "to eat", and "Food" proverb speaks with the day we see as important eating. As our nation for thousands of years the low level of productivity, people are always hungry, why we have a unique all else to eat the food culture, I think this is probably out of a survival need it. If as a culture to eat first thing, then there will be two phenomena: on the one hand this will eat into full play to the extreme, not only survive, but also use it to maintain health, which is "drug tonic as "the cultural basis; the other hand, eating too much attention, will make people praise of the delicious pursuit. Chinese cooking technique in pursuit of delicious almost perfection, and the Chinese people living overseas have to open a restaurant for the industry in the world we want to settle down into the root! Unfortunately, when we consider the pursuit of delicious as the first request, we have neglected the most basic food of nutritional value, many of our traditional food to go through the long slow fire hot ravioli fried and boiled, so the nutritional content of dishes destruction, many nutrients are lost during processing of the.。Hence the mention of the nutritional problems, in effect, goes to the biggest weakness of Chinese food culture. Folk saying goes: "Food, food to taste first." It is this pursuit of the delicious, down so that we ignore the true meaning of eating. Chinese cuisine in the tasting, they tend to say that this dish "delicious" dishes that "taste bad"; However, to further ask what "delicious," why "delicious," "delicious" Where, I am afraid that is not easy to clear. 。 This shows that Chinese people eating is a kind of hard to explain in words the pursuit of the "mood", that use of commonly called "color, smell, taste, shape, device," to put this "state" specific, probably still difficult to cover all his. The reason why Chinese food has its unique charm, the key lies in its taste. And delicious produce, is to reconcile, to make the food taste, cooked taste after heating, plus ingredients and excipients, flavor and seasoning to reconcile the flavor, mixed with the integration of coordination, so that complement each other, mutual penetration, perfect harmony You have me, I have you. China cuisine stresses the harmony of the United States, is the essence of Chinese culinary art of office. Dishes point the shape and color is something external, while the taste is something inherent, intrinsic rather than deliberate modification of re-appearance, flavor and not too heavy dishes expose dishes the shape and color, this is China and the United States concept of food The most important performance. In China, the diet has suppressed . pursuit of rationality, this concept with the traditional Chinese diet philosophy is consistent. As a representative of the Chinese philosophy Eastern philosophy, its distinguishing feature is the macro, intuitive, vague and elusive. Chinese food production is to reconcile Ding Nai, ultimate goal is to reconcile a kind of good taste. The stress is measured, is the overall co-ordination. It contains a wealth of dialectical thought of Chinese philosophy, all to the good taste of food, as the degree of harmonization, within the ever-changing degree of the decision of the Chinese food on the rich and richly varied, determine the characteristics of China's Cai Cai system and even every cook characteristics. Second, differences between Chinese and Western food object that the dishes are Westerners eat, it eats a large piece of meat, whole chickens and other "hard food." China's cuisine is "taste", so the Chinese cooking at the selected materials also show great randomness: many Westerners as discarded things in China are excellent raw materials, foreign chefs can not handle things, the hands of a chef in China, we can achieve the impossible. Indicates the Chinese food in the materials used for the extensive arbitrary. According to a survey of Western botanists, Chinese food has more than 600 kinds of vegetables, six times more than in the West. In fact, in Chinese cuisine, the vegetarian is a common food, meat dishes only on holidays or the standard of living is high, before entering the normal diet, so ancient it will have "fresh vegetables", which eat vegetables in the diet in the usual dominant. Chinese plant-based dishes, and Buddhist advocacy of thread 10000 wire with 1000 links. They see animals as "lives", while the plant is "no soul", therefore, advocated vegetarianism. Western diet, introducing features of their own country, I felt more than in China with emphasis on the rational nutrition, there are more developed food industries, such as canned food, fast food, etc., although the same taste, but to save time, and good nutrition, it is their country than the Chinese people generally robust body: tall, long legs, broad shoulders, muscular development; the Chinese people will look tall and skinny, short legs, narrow shoulders, weak quality color yellow. According to the Western diet was significant difference in the characteristics of the object, called the plant the Chinese character, Westerners called the animal character. In the diet, the different ways in the Western diet is very different, these differences also have an impact on the national character. In China, a banquet, no matter what purpose, there will be only one form, is everyone sitting round and round, sharing a seat. Use round-table banquet, which created a unity in form, courtesy of Fun atmosphere. Delicious food on the table's center, It is the table of people appreciate the object of taste, but also a table of people exchange feelings vehicle. People to toast each other for food and advised food, in the face of good things, reflects the mutual respect between people, courtesy of the United States and Germany. Although from the health point of view, this diet has obvious shortcomings, but it is consistent with our nation, "happy," the general state of mind, reflecting the classical Chinese philosophy "and" this area thinking of future generations, to facilitate collective emotional communication, and therefore difficult to reform so far. Western-style banquets, the food and wine, although very important, but in fact it is as a foil. Friendship is the core of the banquet, with guests sitting next to the conversation between the purpose of friendship. If the friendship of the banquet and dance analogy, it can be said that Chinese banquet is like a dance, and Western-style banquet is like a dance of men and women. Thus, Chinese style banquet dinner and the purpose of friendship is very obvious, but more Chinese banquet of friendship reflected in the All seats, while the Western-style dinner and more reflected in the friendship between the neighboring guests. 。 And Chinese food more obvious differences in the way of Western popular buffet. This method is: all the food 11 are listed, all what they want, not fixed to the seat to eat, walk free, this way to facilitate communication between individuals, the emotional, if not all of the table also reflects the the Westerners on the personality of the self-respect. 但 However, eat all of, each disturbance, the lack of a number of Chinese people celebrating together, the mood of talking. So, after all, or the difference between emotional and rational. However, this difference seems to change with the development of science and the fuzzy. More and more Chinese people to no longer focus only on food color, aroma, taste, and more emphasis on its health and nutrition of the. Also, because more people are busy working, that Chinese food can not be bothered to do than to a hamburger and convenient. As a difference in the diet also not clear when. 。 But the saying goes, "there are disadvantages also be conducive to the sword", that is, in the scientific era, Chinese and Western restaurants are still there can not be ignored on the shortcomings and disadvantages. So how to avoid and eliminate the shortcomings of both, to improve both diet and how to combine the two, how the Western diet and make greater contributions to human health. We are a group of subjects especially after careful investigation and careful comparison, here a brief talk from the following four differences between Chinese and Western food culture. !
Long history in China in 5000, western social process of world 56 a hundred is brilliant abundant, great and deep food culture;The western nation then has delicately and particularly , from become the food civilization of the west food cultural collision, exchanges and melted into whole mankind's civilization to fill up with wear colourful the Spanish turn of the difference of educated medium west food culture of difference, but this kind of difference come from medium the west different mode of thinking with conducting text introduced a medium Spanish to turn in the difference of food from the food idea, food object, food method, food ownership and property etc. carry on the comparison of the culture.
摘要] 由于自然环境和物产不同,形成了东西方不同的文化,中西饮食便沿着各自的道路发展起来.传统的西方文化是一种畜牧文化和海洋文化,中国文化则是一种农耕文化和陆地文化,两种不同的文化反映出人们生产生活空间和方式的差异,其中饮食是具有代表性的一个方面,从菜单命名使用的词汇即可略见一斑.一、由于自然环境和物产不同,形成了东西方不同的文化,中西饮食便沿着各自的道路发展起来.传统的西方文化是一种畜牧文化和海洋文化,中国文化则是一种农耕文化和陆地文化,两种不同的文化反映出人们生产生活空间和方式的差异,其中饮食是具有代表性的一个方面,从文化命名使用的词汇即可略见一斑.两种饮食文化的差别主要表现在原料种类、烹饪方法、进餐方式、菜式命名等四个方面.(一)原料种类.西餐原料主要是动物类和海洋鱼类,辅以植物类,中餐原料主要是植物类和淡水鱼类,辅以动物类.随着社会发展和中西方交流的增加,两种饮食体系所使用的原料有趋同的趋势,但差别仍然比较明显.中国人视为珍馐美味的猫、狗、鸽子西方人是不会尝试的,而西方人习以为常的海洋鱼类、贝壳类可能为多数内地中国人见所未见,中国人的"食谱"范围比西方人的丰富得多.(二)烹饪方式.这是中西餐饮的一大差别,也是饮食文化差异的隐性因素.烹饪方法的差异又表现在三个方面:首先是原料的粗加工,所谓"食不厌精、脍不厌细",基础就是原料的粗加工,中餐对此十分讲究,加工后的原料形状多种多样,有整体(Whole)、块(Cubes)、片(Slices)、卷(Rolls)、条(Strips)、段(Segments)、丝(Shreds)、丁(Dice)、粒(Grains)、末(Mince)、蓉(泥)(Mash)、浆(Thickliq 2uid)、汁(Juice)等,西餐原料的处理则较为简单,一般有整体、块、片、丁、泥等几种形状;其次是火候,中式烹调讲究用火,三十多种加工方法许多是西餐中没有的,西餐烹调加工时间较短、火温适中;三是调味,中餐的复合味型多,要求原料入味,西餐则强调原料本味及调料的独立使用.(三)进餐方式.这是中西饮食文化差异的显性因素,也是中西方文化中的社会心理、价值观、民族习俗方面的差异在饮食上的表现.刀叉与筷子、圆桌与条桌等各不相同,在菜式和道数上双方虽然都有程式,但一分一合,互相对立,由此产生的宴请礼仪、饮酒方式、席间气氛也大不相同.(四)菜式命名.中餐讲究"作",西餐注重"吃",中菜命名讲究文雅、含蓄和吉利,注重表情、联想功能,寓情、寓意,便使用了多种修辞手法,除少量大众化菜肴以原料直接命名外,相当一部分菜是以创始人、景物、典故和传闻来命名的,这种命名方法的缺点是菜名与原料无明显关联,往往不知所云,如"八仙过海""、佛跳墙"等.西菜命名则直截了当,突出原料,极少使用类似中菜命名的修辞手段,虽少了艺术性,但多了实用性.当然,西菜命名也讲究高雅,但表现方法则是以法文命名."WhenwetalkofmeatonourtableweuseFrenchwords,(porc)(boeuf).Chickensbecomepoultry(poulet),andacalfbecomesveal(veau).EvenifourmenuswerenotwritteninFrenchoutofsnobbery,theEnglishweusedinthemwouldstillbeNormanEnglish."《(高级英语》P28)这是由于罗曼人曾经征服英国,英国农民在牧养牲畜时,讲的是盎格鲁-撒克逊英语,而这些牲畜被端到餐桌上给法国统治者享用时,就有了法语名称,相沿成习,它变成了一种高雅.另外,由于菜单源于法国以及法国饮食文化对西方饮食文化的深远影响,许多西餐菜肴自然用了法语名称,如:胡萝卜蓉汤(Pureealacrecy)、罗宋汤(Bor2schalaRusse)、芝士左口鱼(Fletanalamornay)等.二、中餐菜单英译的基本原则中餐曾有"食单"而无菜单,它和"番茄"、"洋芋"一样来自于西方,并很快融入中国饮食文化,形成了自己的特色,成为餐饮业不可或缺的一项"硬件".随着东西方文化交流的更加深入和广泛,来到中国的外宾越来越多,一张好的菜单就是一份高明的宣传单,一份本土化的菜单将使他们的中国之行更加完满.菜单最初只是厨师备忘的单子,但今非昔比,当今菜单有了更多功能:11向客人说明食品饮料的种类和价格,便于顾客挑选;21反映餐厅的经营方针,标志着餐厅商品的特色和标准;31是客人和接待者之间的沟通渠道;41是菜品研究的资料;51加强宣传,促进销售.小小菜单,作用多多.由于东西方文化和食物原料、制作方法存在诸多差异,菜单的翻译远不象想象的那么简单.影响菜单翻译的最重要因素是烹饪方法和菜式命名,翻译时应把握好二者的特点,既要符合西餐菜肴命名习惯,又要体现中餐特色,切忌望文生义或按字面含义直译.翻译过程中必须把握以下六个原则:第一,注重菜单的信息功能,保证菜名提供准确、足够的信息,而不能简单地按照中菜名称的修饰词而直译,以便外宾选择.如"麻婆豆腐"译成"Pockmarkedwoman'sbeancurd"、"八仙过海"译为"EightImmortalscrossingthesea"",鱼香肉丝"译为"Fish-flavorshreddedpork"就会使外宾茫然或误解.第二,要发挥菜单的促销作用.应借鉴中菜命名的艺术手法,尽量反映中餐烹饪特色,尤其对一些历史悠久、流传广泛的菜肴在翻译后还可以附加说明.这样既保留菜名信息,又引人兴趣,以达到吸引食客的目的.第三,把握中餐烹调方法的类别.为反映中餐对火候的讲究和其艺术性,可进行适当修饰.中餐烹调方法分类如下:烧、烧、烩、 、焖Braise炖、煨Stew煎、炸、酥Deep-fry爆、炒、熘、滑Stir-fry、Quick-fry干炒、干煸、焙Sauté煮、汆、涮、白灼Boil烧、烤、烘、 Roast、Barbecue、Broil、Bake蒸、腌、卤、酱、熏、酿、扒、烫、糟等有对等词,可一对一翻译,较特殊的做法如"油淋"可归入"煎炸"类,西餐没有拔丝方法,类似方法有Candy、Toffee.第四,尽量译出原料加工后的形状.原料形状在西餐中并不重要,但在中餐中却能反映出烹调的技艺水平,译文应予保留,确实累赘的,则可省略.第五,把握原料这一核心,无论中菜如何命名,均须翻译出原料,再加上烹调方法和味型等辅助因素.第六,避免文化冲突.中菜命名为了吉祥,借用了一些不能食用的物品或西方人忌讳食用的动物名,翻译时应按原料名直译,如果原料本身是西方人忌食的,这道菜可省略不译.如"翡翠鱼翅"、"红烧狮子头",真正的翡翠当然不能食用的,其实它就是蔬菜,而狮子西方人更不会食用,我们也是以其威武来形容"肉圆"罢了,直译会引起"血腥"的感觉.又如"脆皮乳鸽",将象征着和平的鸽子烹而食之,也是西方人不能接受的,所以最好把它略过.三、中餐菜名英译的具体探讨上面提出了中餐菜单英译的六原则,下面就一些中餐菜名英译进行具体探讨.11以原料命名的菜不加修辞,直译最为简便,烹饪方法不必译出.中菜汤类命名一般按此方法,翻译的处理就是"原料加汤".如:双冬牛肉-Beefwithmushroomandbambooshouts口蘑菜心-Mushroomswithcabbageheart青椒肉丝-Shreddedporkandgreenchili豆腐汤-Beancurdwithmushroomsoup21以烹调方法加原料命名.因为烹调方法是饮食文化的核心组成部分,翻译时必须译出烹调方法.中菜的一些烹调方法是西餐所没有的,有些则相近,翻译时用近义词亦可.如"干煸"在西餐中没有,其操作过程是:先用油炸原料,然后以少许油翻炒,迅速将油炒干后起锅,并不是加油直接炒.英语中有两个字与之意义相近,一是sauté--friedquicklyinapanwithalittlehotbutterorotherfat.意识是"快炸、煎";一是torrefy--todryuporparchwithheat(.)意识是"烘干、烤干、焙干",从制作过程看,sauté更合适些.如:炸蛋卷-Deep-friedeggrolls回锅肉-Slicedporkdoublysautéedinsoysauce干煸牛肉丝-Sautéedbeefshreds31烹调方式加原料和作料命名.作料是决定味型的最重要因素,翻译时也不能省略.如豉汁蒸带子,省略作料就成了清蒸,味道完全不同.酱爆肉去掉"soypaste",成了无任何特点的"煎肉",二者有天渊之别.其它如:豉汁蒸带子-Steamedscallopswithcuredsoybean酱爆肉-Quick-friedporkwithsoypaste茄汁石斑鱼-Deepfriedgaroupawithtomatosauce41风味菜肴.风味菜主要因其味型特点而得以广泛流传,所以除原料外,应译出风味,一些有确切起源地的菜,还应该加上地名.鱼香肉丝的确切译名应为"Stir-friedporkshredsSichuanstyle"或"Stir-friedporkshredsingarlicsauce",不能译为"Fish-flavorshreddedpork",是因为"鱼香"作为川菜的一种风味,使用了固定搭配的作料,与真正的鱼没有任何关系,译为"Fish-flavor",菜中并无"Fish",给人以误导之嫌.其他风味菜还有:湘味牛肉丝-SlicedbeefHunanstyle糖醋排骨-Friedporkchopinsweet-soursauce荷叶粉蒸肉-Steamedporkcoatedgroundriceonlotusleaf51以人名、地名命名的菜肴,一般全部译出,人名前最好加上头衔或职业,对那些知之甚少或译出后外宾不能理解的,则去人名加味型.东坡肉-PoetDongpo'sbraisedpork毛氏红烧肉-ChairmanMao'sstewedporkwithsoysauce北京烤鸭-Beijingroastedduck东江酿豆腐-BeancurdstuffedwithporkminceDongjiangstyle61用象形手法或借用典故、传说命名.这是中菜命名的一个特点,它集中反映了中国饮食文化的特色,具有很深的社会内涵,也是翻译的难点,处理方法是还其本原,译出主料、作料或做法,能兼顾修辞含义时则兼顾,切不可拘泥于原名而直译.翡翠鱼翅-Double-boiledshark'sfinwithve 2getable翡翠不能食用,仅是一个代称,指绿色的蔬菜,翻译时不能按字面译为"Jadeshark'sfin",否则外宾会莫名其妙.蚂蚁上树-Sautéedbeanvermicelliwithspicymeatsauce蚂蚁在中餐中虽可以入菜,但此蚂蚁非彼蚂蚁,而是用酱油和淀粉和过的肉末.直译可能引起外宾的惊诧.桔瓣鱼汆-Quick-boiledfishballsorangepet 2alshaped这道菜是指鱼汆外形似桔瓣,其实菜中无桔瓣,也无桔味,翻译时不可将之作为原料,译名中加"orangepetalshaped",是为了增加美感,增强促销功能.叫化鸡-Bakedchickenvagabondstyle或Bakedchickenwrappedwithmud此菜相传为乞丐创制,取名时以"叫化"代"乞丐",是一种美化,翻译时,以"vagabond"代"beg2gar",也是一种美化.后一译名比较实在,但少了前者的浪漫味道.麻婆豆腐-Beancurdwithmincedporkinhotsauce这道菜在我国广为流传",麻婆"成了一个特殊的称谓,外宾没有它的文化背景,翻译时只能取味型.如将之译为"Pockmarkswoman'sbeancurd",即使外宾理解,也失去了美感.霸王别姬-Steamedturtleandchickeninwhitesauce寿比南山-Steamedchickeninpumpkin连生贵子-Lotusnutsinsyrup这些纯为吉利的象征名称,不仅不能直译,也无法直译,所以只能还原处理.如为了促销,可对这些菜附加说明.71菜名含器具的可译出器具,也可直译原料,作为一种特殊的做法,以译出器具为佳.有加工作用的器具在西餐中是不会搬上桌子的,这也是中餐的一个特点,它表现了中餐的艺术性.器具一般有火锅、锅仔、铁板、沙锅、煲等.八珍火锅-Eightdelicacieshotpot锅仔甲鱼-Braisedturtleinminipot铁板牛柳-Vealslicesfriedonironplate汆圆粉丝煲-Stewedmeatballsandbeanver 2micelliincasserole以上探讨了中菜英译的一些基本方法.由于中国菜种系繁多,原料区别大,烹饪方法各具特色,菜名千差万别,翻译时还需具体研究,否则不能把握其特点,准确翻译也就无从谈起.四、菜单的编排除命名方面的差异外,在菜的分类和编排方式上二者也不相同,这是由于用餐方式和上菜顺序不同所引起的.中餐菜单按原料分类,呈纵向序列,西餐菜单按一次食用菜的道数编排,呈平行并列.中餐菜单菜肴的排列一般是按冷菜凉碟类、肉类、鱼类、海鲜类、禽类、蔬菜类、汤类、点心水果类、主食类的顺序进行,饮料酒类单列.西餐菜单菜肴的排列则按进食顺序安排,分为开胃菜类(APPETIZERS)、汤类(SOUPS)、色拉类(SAL2ADS)、主菜类(ENTREES)(包括肉类、鱼类、海鲜
略谈中西方饮食文化差异 餐饮产品由于地域特征、气侯环境、风俗习惯等因素的影响，会出现在原料、口味、烹调方法、饮食习惯上的不同程度的差异。正是因为这些差异，餐饮产品具有了强烈的地域性。中西文化之间的差异造就了中西饮食文化的差异，而这种差异来自中西方不同的思维方式和处世哲学。中国人注重“天人合一”，西方人注重“以人为本”。 这里简要从下面三个方面谈谈中西方饮食文化的差异。 一、两种不同的饮食观念 对比注重“味”的中国饮食，西方是一种理性饮食观念。不论食物的色、香、味、形如何，而营养一定要得到保证，讲究一天要摄取多少热量、维生素、蛋白质等等。即便口味千篇一律，也一定要吃下去——因为有营养。这一饮食观念同西方整个哲学体系是相适应的。形而上学是西方哲学的主要特点。西方哲学所研究的对象为事物之理，事物之理常为形上学理，形上学理互相连贯，便结成形上哲学。这一哲学给西方文化带来生机，使之在自然科学上、心理学上、方法论上实现了突飞猛进的发展。但在另一些方面，这种哲学主张大大地起了阻碍作用，如饮食文化。在宴席上，可以讲究餐具，讲究用料，讲究服务，讲究菜之原料的形、色方面的搭配；但不管怎么豪华高档，从洛杉矶到纽约，牛排都只有一种味道，无艺术可言。作为菜肴，鸡就是鸡，牛排就是牛排，纵然有搭配，那也是在盘中进行的，一盘“法式羊排”，一边放土豆泥，旁倚羊排，另一边配煮青豆，加几片番茄便成。色彩上对比鲜明，但在滋味上各种原料互不相干、调和，各是各的味，简单明了。 中国人是很重视“吃”的，“民以食为天”这句谚语就说明我们把吃看得与天一样重要。由于我们这个民族几千年来都处于低下的生产力水平，人们总是吃不饱，所以才会有一种独特的把吃看得重于一切的饮食文化，我想，这大概是出于一种生存需要吧。如果一种文化把吃看成首要的事，那么就会出现两种现象：一方面会把这种吃的功能发挥到极致，不仅维持生存，也利用它维持健康，这也就是”药补不如食补”的文化基础；另一方面，对吃的过份重视，会使人推崇对美味的追求。 在中国的烹调术中，对美味追求几乎达到极致，以至中国人到海外谋生，都以开餐馆为业，成了我们在全世界安身立命的根本！遗憾的是，当我们把追求美味作为第一要求时，我们却忽略了食物最根本的营养价值，我们的很多传统食品都要经过热油炸和长时间的文火饨煮，使菜肴的营养成分受到破坏，许多营养成分都损失在加工过程中了。因而一说到营养问题，实际上就触及到了中国饮食文化的最大弱点。民间有句俗话：“民以食为天，食以味为先”。就是这种对美味的追求，倒使我们忽略了吃饭的真正意义。 中国人在品尝菜肴时，往往会说这盘菜“好吃”，那道菜“不好吃”；然而若要进一步问一下什么叫“好吃”，为什么“好吃”，“好吃”在哪里，恐怕就不容易说清楚了。这说明，中国人对饮食追求的是一种难以言传的“意境”，即使用人们通常所说的“色、香、味、形、器”来把这种“境界”具体化，恐怕仍然是很难涵盖得了的。 中国饮食之所以有其独特的魅力，关键就在于它的味。而美味的产生，在于调和，要使食物的本味，加热以后的熟味，加上配料和辅料的味以及调料的调和之味，交织融合协调在一起，使之互相补充，互助渗透，水乳交融，你中有我，我中有你。中国烹饪讲究的调和之美，是中国烹饪艺术的精要之处。菜点的形和色是外在的东西，而味却是内在的东西，重内在而不刻意修饰外表，重菜肴的味而不过分展露菜肴的形和色，这正是中国美性饮食观的最重要的表现。 在中国，饮食的美性追求显然压倒了理性，这种饮食观与中国传统的哲学思想也是吻合的。作为东方哲学代表的中国哲学，其显著特点是宏观、直观、模糊及不可捉摸。中国菜的制作方法是调和鼎鼐，最终是要调和出一种美好的滋味。这一讲究的就是分寸，就是整体的配合。它包含了中国哲学丰富的辩证法思想，一切以菜的味的美好、谐调为度，度以内的千变万化就决定了中国菜的丰富和富于变化，决定了中国菜菜系的特点乃至每位厨师的特点。 二、中西饮食对象的差异 西方人认为菜肴是充饥的，所以专吃大块肉、整块鸡等“硬菜”。而中国的菜肴是“吃味”的，所以中国烹调在用料上也显出极大的随意性：许多西方人视为弃物的东西，在中国都是极好的原料，外国厨师无法处理的东西，一到中国厨师手里，就可以化腐朽为神奇。足见中国饮食在用料方面的随意性之广博。 据西方的植物学者的调查，中国人吃的菜蔬有600多种，比西方多六倍。实际上，在中国人的菜肴里，素菜是平常食品，荤菜只有在节假日或生活水平较高时，才进入平常的饮食结构，所以自古便有“菜食”之说，菜食在平常的饮食结构中占主导地位。中国人的以植物为主菜，与佛教徒的鼓吹有着千缕万丝的联系。他们视动物为“生灵”，而植物则“无灵”，所以，主张素食主义。 西方人在介绍自己国家的饮食特点时，觉得比中国更重视营养的合理搭配，有较为发达的食品工业，如罐头、快餐等，虽口味千篇一律，但节省时间，且营养良好，故他们国家的人身体普遍比中国人健壮：高个、长腿、宽大的肩、发达的肌肉；而中国人则显得身材瘦小、肩窄腿短、色黄质弱。有人根据中西方饮食对象的明显差异这一特点，把中国人称为植物性格，西方人称为动物性格。 三、饮食方式的不同 中西方的饮食方式有很大不同，这种差异对民族性格也有影响。在中国，任何一个宴席，不管是什么目的，都只会有一种形式，就是大家团团围坐，共享一席。筵席要用圆桌，这就从形式上造成了一种团结、礼貌、共趣的气氛。美味佳肴放在一桌人的中心，它既是一桌人欣赏、品尝的对象，又是一桌人感情交流的媒介物。人们相互敬酒、相互让菜、劝菜，在美好的事物面前，体现了人们之间相互尊重、礼让的美德。虽然从卫生的角度看，这种饮食方式有明显的不足之处，但它符合我们民族“大团圆”的普遍心态，反映了中国古典哲学中“和”这个范畴对后代思想的影响，便于集体的情感交流，因而至今难以改革。 西式饮宴上，食品和酒尽管非常重要，但实际上那是作为陪衬。宴会的核心在于交谊，通过与邻座客人之间的交谈，达到交谊的目的。如果将宴会的交谊性与舞蹈相类比，那么可以说，中式宴席好比是集体舞，而西式宴会好比是男女的交谊舞。由此可见，中式宴会和西式宴会交谊的目的都很明显，只不过中式宴会更多地体现在全席的交谊，而西式宴会多体现于相邻宾客之间的交谊。与中国饮食方式的差异更为明显的是西方流行的自助餐。此法是：将所有食物一一陈列出来，大家各取所需，不必固定在位子上吃，走动自由，这种方式便于个人之间的情感交流，不必将所有的话摆在桌面上，也表现了西方人对个性、对自我的尊重。但各吃各的，互不相扰，缺少了一些中国人聊欢共乐的情调。 所以，归根结底还是感性与理性之间的差异。但是，这种差异似乎在随着科学的发展而变的模糊。越来越多的中国人以不再只注重菜的色、香、味，而更注重它的卫生与营养了。尤其是在经历了非典以后。还有，人们因为越来越繁忙的工作，觉得中餐做起来太麻烦，不如来个汉堡方便等。这样一来在饮食上差异也就不太分明了。
檫，我今年也是这题目
最好去学校图书馆或省市图书馆上网进论文库查询以往论文以作参考
only found one. hope that works~American table manners[edit] Table Layout * Bread plates are to the left of the main plate, beverage glasses are to the right. * Salad fork, knife and soup spoon are further from the main plate than the main course knife, fork and spoon. Dessert utensils are either placed above the main plate or served with dessert.[edit] General Behavior * Chew with your mouth closed. * Do not talk at an excessively loud volume. * Refrain from coughing, sneezing or blowing nose at the table. * Never tilt back your chair while at the table, or at any other time. * Do not make unbecoming noises while eating. * Do not play with food or table utensils. * Do not single out or chastise someone who has shown poor table manners. * Do not put your elbows on the table or slouch. * Always ask the host or hostess to be excused before leaving the table. * Do not stare at anyone while he or she is eating. * Never talk on your phone at the table. If urgent, ask host or hostess to be excused, and go outside. Apologize when returned.[edit] Utensils * Do not eat food with your fingers unless you are eating foods customarily eaten with fingers, such as bread, french fries, chicken wings, pizza, etc. * The fork may be used either in the American (use the fork in your left hand while cutting; switch to right hand to pick up and eat a piece) or the Continental (fork remains in the left hand) fashion -- either is now acceptable. (See Fork etiquette) * The fork is used to convey any solid food to the mouth. * The knife blade should be placed on the edge of your plate when not in use. The blade should always face inward. * When you have finished eating soup, the spoon should be placed to the side of the saucer, not left in the bowl. * Keep your napkin on your lap. At more formal occasions all diners will wait to place their napkins on their laps until the host or hostess places his or her napkin on his or her lap * When eating barbecue or some other messy foods such as cracked crab, a 'bib' napkin may be provided for and used by adults. Usually these foods are also eaten by hand, and wet wipes or paper napkins should be used to clean the hands. * When using paper napkins, never ball them up or allow stains to show. * Use your silverware from the outside moving inward toward the main plate. (Salad fork, knife and soup spoon are further from the main plate than the main course knife, fork and spoon. Dessert utensils are either placed above the main plate or served with dessert.)[edit] Dining * A prayer or 'blessing' may be customary in some families, and the guests should join in even if they are not religious or do not follow the same religion. Most prayers are made by the host before the meal is eaten. Instead or in addition, a 'toast' may be offered [1]. * Do not start eating until (a) every person is served or (b) those who have not been served request that you begin without waiting. At more formal occasions all diners will wait to begin until the hostess or host lifts a fork or spoon. * When a dish is presented 'family style', the food is served to one's plate and then passed on to the next person. put the food on your left, take some and pass to the person next to you. * When serving, serve from the left and pick up the dish from the right. Beverages are both served and removed from the right. * Eat soup noiselessly and with the side of the spoon. * Tea or coffee should never be poured into the saucer to cool but should be sipped from the cup. Alternatively, ice may be used to cool either. * Seasoning ones meal prior to tasting can be considered rude and may insult the chef.[edit] At the end of the meal * It is acceptable in most places to not finish all of the food on your plate. * When finished with your meal, place your knife and fork with handles at the 4 o'clock position and the tines of the fork down to signal to the server you are done. * Except in a public restaurant, do not ask to take some of your uneaten food away from the meal after it ends, especially when having a formal dinner.[edit] British table manners * The fork is held in your left hand and the knife is held in your right. * You should hold your knife with the handle in your palm and your fork in the other hand with the prongs pointing downwards. * If you’re eating a dessert, your fork (if you have one) should be held in the left hand and the spoon in the right. * When eating soup, you should hold your spoon in your right hand and tip the bowl away from you, scooping the soup in movements away from yourself. * It is not acceptable to use your fingers at the table to eat or push food onto your fork. You may, however, eat some foods such as fruit, sandwiches, hamburgers, crisps, chips or pizza with your fingers. * If there are a number of knives or forks, then you should start from the outside set working your way in as each course is served. * Drinks should always be to the right of your plate with the bread roll to the left. * When eating bread rolls, break off a piece before buttering. Use your knife only to butter the bread, not to cut it. * You should not start eating before your host does or instructs you to do so. At larger meals, it is considered okay to start eating once others have been served. * When you’re finished, place your knife and fork together at five o’clock with your fork on the left (tines facing up) and knife on the right, with the knife blade facing in. This signals that you are finished. * Your napkin should never be screwed up. Nor should it be folded neatly as that would suggest that your host might plan to use it again without washing it - just leave is neatly but loosely. * Never blow your nose on your napkin. Place it on your lap and use it to dab your mouth if you make a mess. * It is considered rude to answer the telephone at the table. If you need to take an urgent call, excuse yourself and go outside. * Always ask for permission from the host and excuse yourself if you need to leave the table. You should place your napkin on your seat until you return. * If you must leave the table or are resting, your fork should be at eight o’clock and your knife at four o’clock (with the blade inwards). Once an item of cutlery has been used, it should not touch the table again. * The food should be brought to your mouth on the fork; you should sit straight and not lean towards your plate. * Dishes should be served from the right, and taken away from the right. Unless the food is placed on your plate at the table, then it should arrive from the left. * Drinks should be served from the right. * Never lean across somebody else’s plate. If you need something to be passed, ask the person closest to it. If you have to pass something, only pass it if you are closest to it and pass it directly to them if you can. * Salt & pepper should be passed together. * Do not take food from a neighbour’s plate and don’t ask to do so. * You must not put your elbows on the table. * If pouring a drink for yourself, offer to pour a drink for your neighbours before serving yourself. * If extra food is on the table, ask others first if they would like it before taking it yourself. * When chewing food, close your mouth and only talk when you have swallowed it. * Swallow all food before eating more or having a drink. * Do not slurp your food or eat loudly. Burping or sneezing at the table should be avoided, too. * Never pick food out of your teeth with your fingernails. * Try to eat all the food you are served. * Glasses served in a wine glass or other stemmed-glass should be held at the stem. * Always remember “regular” manners. Remember to say "please" and "thank you".[edit] Chinese table mannersThese are mostly concerned with the use of chopsticks. Otherwise generally Chinese table manners are rather more informal, what would be considered rude in other cultures such as talking with the mouth full may be acceptable but better not to do so. * Chopsticks must always be held in the correct manner. It should be held between the thumb and fingers of the right hand, * Chopsticks are traditionally held in the right hand only, even by the left-handed. Although chopsticks may now be found in either hand, a few still consider left-handed chopstick use improper etiquette. One explanation for the treatment of such usage as improper is that this can symbolise argument, as the chopsticks may collide between the left-handed and right-handed user. * When communal chopsticks are supplied with shared plates of food, it is considered impolite to use your own chopsticks to pick up the food from the shared plate or eat using the communal chopsticks. An exception to this rule is made in intimate family dinners where family members may not mind the use of one's own chopsticks to transfer food. * It is considered impolite to use the blunt end of the chopsticks to transfer food from a common dish to your own plate or bowl. Use the communal chopsticks instead. * Never wave your chopsticks around as if they were an extension of your hand gestures, bang them like drumsticks, or use them to move bowls or plates. * Decide what to pick up before reaching with chopsticks. Do not hover around or poke looking for special ingredients. After you have picked up an item, do not put it back in the dish. * When picking up a piece of food, never use the tips of your chopsticks to poke through the food as if you were using a fork. Exceptions include tearing larger items apart such as vegetables. In informal use, small, difficult to pick-up items such as cherry tomatoes or fishballs may be stabbed but this use is frowned upon by traditionalists. * Chopsticks can be rested horizontally on one's plate or bowl to keep them off the table entirely. A chopstick rest can also be used to keep the points off the table. * Never stab chopsticks into a bowl of rice, leaving them standing upwards. Any stick-like object facing upward resembles the incense sticks that some Asians use as offerings to deceased family members. This is considered the ultimate faux pas on the dining table. * Chinese traditionally eat rice from a small bowl held in the left hand. The rice bowl is raised to the mouth and the rice pushed into the mouth using the chopsticks. Some Chinese find it offensive to scoop rice from the bowl using a spoon. If rice is served on a plate, as is more common in the West, it is acceptable and more practical to eat it with a fork or spoon. The thumb must always be above the edge of the bowl. * It is acceptable to transfer food to people who have a close relation with you (. parents, grandparents, children or significant others) if you notice they are having difficulty picking up the food. Also it is a sign of respect to pass food to the elderly first before the dinner starts (part of the Confucian tradition of respecting seniors). * Traditionally, it is polite for the youngest members of the table to address each and everyone of the elderly members of the table before a meal starts and literally tell them to "eat rice", which means "go ahead and start the meal", to show respect. * The host should always make sure the guests drinks are sufficiently full. One should not pour for ones self, but should (if thirsty) offer to pour for a neighbor. When your drink is being poured, you should say "thank you" and/or tap your fingers on the table to show appreciation. * When people wish to clink drinks together in the form of a cheer, it is important to observe that younger members should clink the edge of their drink below the edge of an elder to show respect. * When eating food that contains bones, it is customary that the bones be spit out onto the table to the right of the dining plate in a neat pile.
一、两种不同的饮食观念餐饮产品由于地域特征、气侯环境、风俗习惯等因素的影响，会出现在原料、口味、烹调方法、饮食习惯上的不同程度的差异。正是因为这些差异，餐饮产品具有了强烈的地域性。中西文化之间的差异造就了中西饮食文化的差异，而这种差异来自中西方不同的思维方式和处世哲学。中国人注重“天人合一”，西方人注重“以人为本”。对比注重“味”的中国饮食，西方是一种理性饮食观念。不论食物的色、香、味、形如何，而营养一定要得到保证，讲究一天要摄取多少热量、维生素、蛋白质等等。即便口味千篇一律，也一定要吃下去--因为有营养。这一饮食观念同西方整个哲学体系是相适应的。形而上学是西方哲学的主要特点。西方哲学所研究的对象为事物之理，事物之理常为形上学理，形上学理互相连贯，便结成形上哲学。这一哲学给西方文化带来生机，使之在自然科学上、心理学上、方法论上实现了突飞猛进的发展。但在另一些方面，这种哲学主张大大地起了阻碍作用，如饮食文化。在宴席上，可以讲究餐具，讲究用料，讲究服务，讲究菜之原料的形、色方面的搭配；但不管怎么豪华高档，从洛杉矶到纽约，牛排都只有一种味道，无艺术可言。作为菜肴，鸡就是鸡，牛排就是牛排，纵然有搭配，那也是在盘中进行的，一盘“法式羊排”，一边放土豆泥，旁倚羊排，另一边配煮青豆，加几片番茄便成。色彩上对比鲜明，但在滋味上各种原料互不相干、调和，各是各的味，简单明了。中国人是很重视“吃”的，“民以食为天”这句谚语就说明我们把吃看得与天一样重要。由于我们这个民族几千年来都处于低下的生产力水平，人们总是吃不饱，所以才会有一种独特的把吃看得重于一切的饮食文化，我想，这大概是出于一种生存需要吧。如果一种文化把吃看成首要的事，那么就会出现两种现象：一方面会把这种吃的功能发挥到极致，不仅维持生存，也利用它维持健康，这也就是”药补不如食补”的文化基础；另一方面，对吃的过份重视，会使人推崇对美味的追求。二、饮食方式的不同中西方的饮食方式有很大不同，这种差异对民族性格也有影响。在中国，任何一个宴席，不管是什么目的，都只会有一种形式，就是大家团团围坐，共享一席。筵席要用圆桌，这就从形式上造成了一种团结、礼貌、共趣的气氛。美味佳肴放在一桌人的中心，它既是一桌人欣赏、品尝的对象，又是一桌人感情交流的媒介物。人们相互敬酒、相互让菜、劝菜，在美好的事物面前，体现了人们之间相互尊重、礼让的美德。虽然从卫生的角度看，这种饮食方式有明显的不足之处，但它符合我们民族“大团圆”的普遍心态，反映了中国古典哲学中“和”这个范畴对后代思想的影响，便于集体的情感交流，因而至今难以改革。西式饮宴上，食品和酒尽管非常重要，但实际上那是作为陪衬。宴会的核心在于交谊，通过与邻座客人之间的交谈，达到交谊的目的。如果将宴会的交谊性与舞蹈相类比，那么可以说，中式宴席好比是集体舞，而西式宴会好比是男女的交谊舞。由此可见，中式宴会和西式宴会交谊的目的都很明显，只不过中式宴会更多地体现在全席的交谊，而西式宴会多体现于相邻宾客之间的交谊。与中国饮食方式的差异更为明显的是西方流行的自助餐。此法是：将所有食物一一陈列出来，大家各取所需，不必固定在位子上吃，走动自由，这种方式便于个人之间的情感交流，不必将所有的话摆在桌面上，也表现了西方人对个性、对自我的尊重。但各吃各的，互不相扰，缺少了一些中国人聊欢共乐的情调。
对比注重“味”的中国饮食，西方是一种理性饮食观念。不论食物的色、香、味、形如何，而营养一定要得到保证，讲究一天要摄取多少热量、维生素、蛋白质等等。即便口味千篇一律，也一定要吃下去——因为有营养。这一饮食观念同西方整个哲学体系是相适应的。形而上学是西方哲学的主要特点。西方哲学所研究的对象为事物之理，事物之理常为形上学理，形上学理互相连贯，便结成形上哲学。这一哲学给西方文化带来生机，使之在自然科学上、心理学上、方法论上实现了突飞猛进的发展。但在另一些方面，这种哲学主张大大地起了阻碍作用，如饮食文化。在宴席上，可以讲究餐具，讲究用料，讲究服务，讲究菜之原料的形、色方面的搭配；但不管怎么豪华高档，从洛杉矶到纽约，牛排都只有一种味道，无艺术可言。作为菜肴，鸡就是鸡，牛排就是牛排，纵然有搭配，那也是在盘中进行的，一盘“法式羊排”，一边放土豆泥，旁倚羊排，另一边配煮青豆，加几片番茄便成。色彩上对比鲜明，但在滋味上各种原料互不相干、调和，各是各的味，简单明了。 中国人是很重视“吃”的，“民以食为天”这句谚语就说明我们把吃看得与天一样重要。由于我们这个民族几千年来都处于低下的生产力水平，人们总是吃不饱，所以才会有一种独特的把吃看得重于一切的饮食文化，我想，这大概是出于一种生存需要吧。如果一种文化把吃看成首要的事，那么就会出现两种现象：一方面会把这种吃的功能发挥到极致，不仅维持生存，也利用它维持健康，这也就是”药补不如食补”的文化基础；另一方面，对吃的过份重视，会使人推崇对美味的追求。 在中国的烹调术中，对美味追求几乎达到极致，以至中国人到海外谋生，都以开餐馆为业，成了我们在全世界安身立命的根本！遗憾的是，当我们把追求美味作为第一要求时，我们却忽略了食物最根本的营养价值，我们的很多传统食品都要经过热油炸和长时间的文火饨煮，使菜肴的营养成分受到破坏，许多营养成分都损失在加工过程中了。因而一说到营养问题，实际上就触及到了中国饮食文化的最大弱点。民间有句俗话：“民以食为天，食以味为先”。就是这种对美味的追求，倒使我们忽略了吃饭的真正意义。 中国人在品尝菜肴时，往往会说这盘菜“好吃”，那道菜“不好吃”；然而若要进一步问一下什么叫“好吃”，为什么“好吃”，“好吃”在哪里，恐怕就不容易说清楚了。这说明，中国人对饮食追求的是一种难以言传的“意境”，即使用人们通常所说的“色、香、味、形、器”来把这种“境界”具体化，恐怕仍然是很难涵盖得了的。 中国饮食之所以有其独特的魅力，关键就在于它的味。而美味的产生，在于调和，要使食物的本味，加热以后的熟味，加上配料和辅料的味以及调料的调和之味，交织融合协调在一起，使之互相补充，互助渗透，水乳交融，你中有我，我中有你。中国烹饪讲究的调和之美，是中国烹饪艺术的精要之处。菜点的形和色是外在的东西，而味却是内在的东西，重内在而不刻意修饰外表，重菜肴的味而不过分展露菜肴的形和色，这正是中国美性饮食观的最重要的表现。 在中国，饮食的美性追求显然压倒了理性，这种饮食观与中国传统的哲学思想也是吻合的。作为东方哲学代表的中国哲学，其显著特点是宏观、直观、模糊及不可捉摸。中国菜的制作方法是调和鼎鼐，最终是要调和出一种美好的滋味。这一讲究的就是分寸，就是整体的配合。它包含了中国哲学丰富的辩证法思想，一切以菜的味的美好、谐调为度，度以内的千变万化就决定了中国菜的丰富和富于变化，决定了中国菜菜系的特点乃至每位厨师的特点。 二、中西饮食对象的差异 西方人认为菜肴是充饥的，所以专吃大块肉、整块鸡等“硬菜”。而中国的菜肴是“吃味”的，所以中国烹调在用料上也显出极大的随意性：许多西方人视为弃物的东西，在中国都是极好的原料，外国厨师无法处理的东西，一到中国厨师手里，就可以化腐朽为神奇。足见中国饮食在用料方面的随意性之广博。 据西方的植物学者的调查，中国人吃的菜蔬有600多种，比西方多六倍。实际上，在中国人的菜肴里，素菜是平常食品，荤菜只有在节假日或生活水平较高时，才进入平常的饮食结构，所以自古便有“菜食”之说，菜食在平常的饮食结构中占主导地位。中国人的以植物为主菜，与佛教徒的鼓吹有着千缕万丝的联系。他们视动物为“生灵”，而植物则“无灵”，所以，主张素食主义。 西方人在介绍自己国家的饮食特点时，觉得比中国更重视营养的合理搭配，有较为发达的食品工业，如罐头、快餐等，虽口味千篇一律，但节省时间，且营养良好，故他们国家的人身体普遍比中国人健壮：高个、长腿、宽大的肩、发达的肌肉；而中国人则显得身材瘦小、肩窄腿短、色黄质弱。有人根据中西方饮食对象的明显差异这一特点，把中国人称为植物性格，西方人称为动物性格。 三、饮食方式的不同 中西方的饮食方式有很大不同，这种差异对民族性格也有影响。在中国，任何一个宴席，不管是什么目的，都只会有一种形式，就是大家团团围坐，共享一席。筵席要用圆桌，这就从形式上造成了一种团结、礼貌、共趣的气氛。美味佳肴放在一桌人的中心，它既是一桌人欣赏、品尝的对象，又是一桌人感情交流的媒介物。人们相互敬酒、相互让菜、劝菜，在美好的事物面前，体现了人们之间相互尊重、礼让的美德。虽然从卫生的角度看，这种饮食方式有明显的不足之处，但它符合我们民族“大团圆”的普遍心态，反映了中国古典哲学中“和”这个范畴对后代思想的影响，便于集体的情感交流，因而至今难以改革。 西式饮宴上，食品和酒尽管非常重要，但实际上那是作为陪衬。宴会的核心在于交谊，通过与邻座客人之间的交谈，达到交谊的目的。如果将宴会的交谊性与舞蹈相类比，那么可以说，中式宴席好比是集体舞，而西式宴会好比是男女的交谊舞。由此可见，中式宴会和西式宴会交谊的目的都很明显，只不过中式宴会更多地体现在全席的交谊，而西式宴会多体现于相邻宾客之间的交谊。与中国饮食方式的差异更为明显的是西方流行的自助餐。此法是：将所有食物一一陈列出来，大家各取所需，不必固定在位子上吃，走动自由，这种方式便于个人之间的情感交流，不必将所有的话摆在桌面上，也表现了西方人对个性、对自我的尊重。但各吃各的，互不相扰，缺少了一些中国人聊欢共乐的情调。 所以，归根结底还是感性与理性之间的差异。但是，这种差异似乎在随着科学的发展而变的模糊。越来越多的中国人以不再只注重菜的色、香、味，而更注重它的卫生与营养了。尤其是在经历了非典以后。还有，人们因为越来越繁忙的工作，觉得中餐做起来太麻烦，不如来个汉堡方便等。这样一来在饮食上差异也就不太分明了。
关于中西方饮食文化的论文
中西方饮食文化各有特点，那么，下面请看我给大家整理收集的关于中西方饮食文化的论文，希望大家喜欢。
中国人对于饮食的要求很高，但并不在营养方面，大部都在口味、形式上，对于口味的追求表现出中国人的调和思维，而烹饪也追求这种调和之美。此外，在文化礼节上，中国人把饮食放到了很高的位置，比如日常生活中朋友好久不见，为了表示对其尊敬要一起吃饭，为了促成与客户的合作，要一起吃饭，逢年过节大家团圆，还要一起吃饭；总之，饮食以成为一种礼节性的需要，不再仅仅是果腹充饥的功能。相对于中国对口味注重的饮食观，西方人则比较注重营养的搭配，强调饮食的营养，对于食物中所含的维生素、脂肪、蛋白质等方面的要示较高。西方人在进行烹饪时，他们会将营养的追求放在首位，仔细的研究食物中有没有副作用、营养失衡等，并不会过分地追求口味。总而言之，在西方人的饮食思维里，吃饭不简简单单地是为了填补肚子，也不是为了享受美味，而是自己生存与健康的保证。从此能看出，在饮食观念上，中国强调口味追求形式，而忽略了食物的营养搭配，西方人则较为注重食物的健康分配，注重营养均衡。
一、用餐方式的差异
在用餐方式上，中国与西方社会存在着巨大差异。中国人是喜爱热闹的，因而逢年过节，人们都喜爱一家围在一大桌饭菜前一起就餐；在公司年会时，领导与下级员工也会在一起聚餐，大家有说有笑，边说边聊；在吃饭时人们都会很活跃，相互敬酒、劝菜等等，整体营造出一种热闹温暖的氛围。这样的饮食方式，在中国的很多场合都会用到，特别是在中秋节、春节等节日里，全家人从四面八方回到一块儿过节，家里的老人或者是擅长烹饪的人会做一大桌子的菜，其乐融融的一起吃饭，并祝福、拜年等等，讲究的是一种和睦、团圆的气氛。通常中国人在进行聚会时，不会给每个人定食定量，而是会准备很多的饭菜，至于吃多吃少，并没有量的要求。但是在西方国家，他们的用餐方式就与我国有着很大的不同。西方人没有中国人团圆与热闹的吃饭习惯，他们喜爱在安静、优雅的环境里就餐，每个人都有自己的餐盘，而每个人的食物都是提前分配好、搭配好的，并没有中国式的一大桌子人围着一堆菜共同而食。而在吃饭的过程中，每个人都没有自己固定的位置，能拿着自己的餐盘随意走动。西方人的这种用餐方式体现了他们注重个体的思维方式，他们强调个人空间，讲究个体的尊重。但是，西方人的用餐方式也存在着不足，人们在吃饭时不能进行感情的交流，因而缺少了一些中国人共乐的情调。
二、饮食礼仪的差异
很多人说，中国的餐桌，能谈成合作、能求婚、还能联络感情，总之中国人大部分事情都能在餐桌上解决。因而，餐桌不再是单纯的吃饭的地方，更是一种交际方式，在用餐这种特殊的交际方式中，礼仪文化是最为重要的'。一般来讲，中国人在进餐时十分看重座次的安排，除非是一些家庭内部的吃饭，其余场合里人们进餐时都十分重视尊卑、长幼。在集体进餐时，人们一般都会等客来齐了才会入席，而座位则有固定的安排，比如正对着门口的位置为最高，其次以东为尊，而请客者或主人一般都坐在门口的位置。宣布开始入席时，会先叫一些位高权重、重要的人先开始，随后主人才会开始。但在西方，饮食礼仪则与中国存在着很多不同。西方进餐礼仪中最为重要的就是绅士风度，男性要对女性表示尊重，遵循女士优先的原则,与女性一起参加宴会时，面对门口的最为重要位置是女主人的，而男主人则座在女主人的对面，即门口的位置，显示出对女性的尊敬。而在具体的进餐时，男士要起身先为女士拉开椅子，让女士先入座；在就餐时，男性并不能先进餐，必须要等女主人及其他女士都开始进餐后，男士才开始进餐。在进餐结束时，女主人离席之后，男性才能离席，而男士仍要为女士拉椅子，让其先行，表示男性的绅士风度。
三、饮食内容的差异
中国是一个农业大国，人口众多，饮食所包含的内容也很多，其中主食以谷物为主，其次中国的蔬菜种类很多，植物类菜品占主导地位。据相关调查显示，中国人的食物中所包含的植物最多，是西方国家的七倍，在中国人日常生活中常见的可吃植物就有六百多种。中国人之所以将植物作为主菜，这与佛教对国家的影响有很大关系。唐朝以后，印度的佛教开始传入我国，佛教认为，动物是仅次于人的一种生灵，人们不能将其杀死，也不能把他们的肉用来烹饪；相比之下植物就不然，它是没有灵魂的，所以中国就形成了以蔬菜为主的饮食内容。因此，有人将中国人的性格称之为植物性格。中国人在进食时喜爱将菜做熟了吃，因而大部分菜都是热的，在人们的思想观念里，菜如果凉了就失去了原有的味道，只有趁热吃，菜的味道才真正发挥出来。西方人则与中国人不同，他们的食物中动物居多，这与他们游牧民族、航海民族的文化背景有关。在原始西方社会，很多人以打渔、捕猎与养殖为生，而种植业在西方社会并不发达，因而人们习惯在动物身上完成吃、穿、用的需求。因而在西方国家，食物中动物类居多，如牛肉、羊肉与猪肉等，在烹饪方法上，也十分注重营养的均衡，如蛋白质、脂肪、维生素等，都是人们日常生活中常常考虑的因素。由于西方人食物中的动物类居多，因而他们也被称为是有动物性格的人。此外，西方人不喜爱热食，他们喜爱冷食，比如色拉、蔬菜拼盘等，一直是西方大从所爱；他们在吃蔬菜时，也喜爱生食，如生菜、黄瓜等，并不将它们做熟，而是直接食用。
四、烹饪方法上的差异
在中国，烹饪是十分讲究的一门艺术。中国的烹饪方法是五花八门的，如煎、炒、爆、炸、溜、焖、蒸、煮、炖、烤、烩等，都是厨师们对食材进行改造的方式，在进行烹饪时，中国人讲究口味与形式的统一，做出的食物更加讲究色、香、味俱全，三者缺一不可，否则就会被认为是失败的烹饪。中餐的工艺十分复杂，一道菜品，往往要经过几十道工序，可能花上几个小时的时间，也可能更久，这一道道工序下来，原本食材的模样已经不见，变成了菜桌了各式各样的精美菜品。由于烹饪过程的复杂性，同一道菜品，经不同的人做，由于火候、佐料与方法不同，味道也会有所不同。人们在烹饪过程中，单纯的吃饭的目的已经不能满足人们的需求，相反乐趣与形式的追求，则更加深厚。但是在西方，人们在进行烹饪时并非如此。西方人认为一位好的烹饪师，是能够将食物的营养搭配到最好，在烹调的过程中应完全按照科学的要求去做，因而西方菜品具有规范化的特点。也就是说，在每一道菜品里调料的分量、时间的精确都是其重要的考核项。在烹饪方法上，西方人大体只有四种方式：煎、烤、焖、炸。这是因为，西方人注重营养的保护，他们认为过多的烹饪工序会破坏食物的营养。综上所述，中西方饮食存在的差异主要表现在饮食方式、用餐礼仪、饮食内容、烹饪方法等几个方面。这些方面的差异，是由于中西方世界的历史发展不同、文化起源不同、风俗习惯不同等方面的原因造成的。在世界一体化的趋势下，充分认识到中西方饮食文化的差异是十分重要的，对于西方饮食文化中的一些优秀文化，我们应加以吸收，以此来弥补我国饮食文化的不足，以此达到科学饮食、健康饮食与美味饮食相结合的目的。
摘 要： 饮食文化是跨文化交际中非语言文化的重要组成部分之一。了解中西方饮食文化的差异， 对于外语学习者来讲，不仅能加深对所学语言文化的理解，更能提高跨文化交际的成功率。本文从中西方饮食文化用餐形式和礼仪的差异、饮食观念的差异、饮食结构的差异、烹饪的差异等方面入手， 对中西方饮食文化进行了比较，目的在于明确中西方饮食文化差异，消除界限，增进了解，促进交流。
关键词： 中西方饮食文化 文化差异 形式和礼仪 观念 结构
一、引言
饮食文化是跨文化交际中非语言文化的重要组成部分之一。饮食与文化紧密相关，不同的民族因其生活地域、气候环境、风俗习惯等因素的影响，而创造出不同的饮食文化。传统的西方文化是畜牧文化和海洋文化，而中国是农耕文化和陆地文化，两种不同的文化反映出人们生活方式的差异，而饮食的差异则深刻透露自身的文化背景。
二、中西用餐形式和礼仪的差异
中国自古以来的礼仪就有以和为贵的思想观念，以和为贵的思想体现在从古至今中国人在开席时都有一家人在一起就餐的观念，体现了中国传统的饮食礼仪。中国人的聚食制延续千年。在中国，任何一个宴席，都是大家团团围坐，共享一席。筵席要用圆桌，从形式上营造团结、礼貌、共趣的气氛。这就是聚食制，聚食制的起源很早，从许多地下文化遗存的发掘可见，古代炊间和聚食的地方是统一的，炊间在住宅的中央，上有天窗出烟，下有篝火，火上安放陶釜、陶鼎，在火上做炊，就食者围火聚食。这种聚食古俗一直延续至后世。美味佳肴放在一桌人的中心，它既是一桌人欣赏、品尝的对象，又是一桌人感情交流的媒介物。这符合中华民族大团圆的普遍心态，反映了中国古典哲学中和的思想。此外，聚食制的长期流传，也是中国重视血缘亲属关系和家族家庭观念在饮食方式上的反映。在西方，由于基督教影响深远，人们将基督教文化中对圣母的虔诚和尊敬延伸至社会生活中，因而形成了尊重女性的社会风尚。法国人赛尔在《西方礼节与习俗》一书中提及“中世纪和文艺复兴的连续影响把妇女置于社交生活的中心地位，使妇女成为受尊重的对象，这是其他文明所没有的”。故而，在西方宴会中，人们将女士优先、尊重妇女作为宴会安排的标准，在安排座位时，先将宾客的性别列出名单，再以此安排具体座位。男女同时赴宴，男士需为女士开门，让女士先行，当主人把女宾客领进大厅时，首先由男主人邀请第一女主宾入席，由男主人为她拉椅子、入座，女主人则同男贵宾最后进入。
三、中西饮食观念的差异
在中国的饮食文化中，对味的追求往往大于对营养的追求，人们在品尝菜肴时，往往会说这盘菜好吃，那道菜不好吃。然而若要进一步问什么叫好吃，为什么好吃，好吃在哪里，恐怕就不容易说清楚了。这说明中国人对饮食追求的是一种难以言传的意境，即使用人们通常所说的色、香、味、形、器把这种境界具体化，恐怕仍很难涵盖其所有意味。在中国，饮食的美性追求显然压倒了理性。这种价值理念的差别构成了中餐过于注重饭菜色、香、味的特点。这种饮食观与中国传统的哲学思想是吻合的。作为东方哲学代表的中国哲学，其显著特点是宏观、直观、模糊及不可捉摸。中国菜的制作方法是调和，最终要调和出一种美好的滋味。这一切讲究的就是分寸，就是整体的配合。它包含了中国哲学丰富的辩证法思想。西方人对待饮食的态度主要坚持其实用性特征，从营养角度出发，重视食物对人体的健康，不追求花样和饭菜的其他功能。他们认为“吃”只是为一个生物的机器加入燃料，保证其正常的工作、生活的运行，只要吃了以后能保持身体健康，抵御病菌的攻击，则其他方面并不讲究。由此可见，饮食在他们心中只是一种维持生命的活动。尤其是在西方国家享有美食之称誉的大国法国，更是追求高质量的营养。法国烹调虽追求美味，但总不忘“营养”这一大前提。在现代西方社会，除了营养的需求外，还十分重视养生，真正做到了以人为本。
四、饮食结构的差异
据西方统计，中国人吃的蔬菜有600多种，是西方的六倍还多。在中国的日常饮食结构中，素菜占据主导位置，而荤菜只有在节假日或者生活水平较高时才进入平常饮食结构中，所以在中国自古就有“菜食”的说法。这种饮食传统，主要与佛教徒的鼓吹有千丝万缕的联系，他们视动物为“生灵”，而认为植物为“无灵”，所以，中国传统文化主张素食主义。西方国家秉承游牧民族、航海民族的文化血统，以渔猎、养殖为生，传统饮食习俗以动物性食料为主，由于西方大多数国家地理位置处于高纬度，有些国家甚至终年积雪，这就造成了西方国家大多数人喜食肉类食物，而且西方人注重营养采取了生熟结合的方式，蔬菜很多时候以前菜沙拉方式出现，饮食结构的不同有时也反映出了各个民族在生活方式和饮食文化方面的不同态度。
五、中西方饮食文化中烹饪的差异
西方烹调遵循的是规范与科学，西方人强调科学与营养，烹饪中处处显示规范与科学。在西方菜谱中，计量都以克计算。这种菜谱似乎是科学的，实际上，这种科学性，也有其弊端，缺乏特色。另外，规范化的烹调甚至要求配料的准备都精确到秒。此外，在西方，一道菜在不同的地区，不同的季节，面对不同的食者，皆为同一味道，毫无变化。中国烹调推崇的是随意与特色，西方人不能理解中国烹调不追求精确的规范化，反而推崇随意性。翻开中国菜谱，常常发现原料的准备量、调料的添加量都是模糊概念。一汤匙、半碗、少许比比皆是，可究竟汤匙、碗有多大，少许是多少，没有具体标准。中国饮食倾向于艺术性。它的特点就是随意性。比如同样一道菜肴，由于地区、作用、等级等不同，能在操作上做不同的处理。以红烧鱼为例，冬天的色宜深些，口味宜重些，夏天则色和味均清淡些。对于江浙一带的人来说，红烧鱼的调味中可加糖，如面对川湘顾客，则应多放辣。
六、结语
研究跨文化交际中的饮食文化差异将使人们增进相互间的了解，享受不同饮食带来的不同感受，增进文化间的交流、互补与融合，促进人们之间的相互理解和欣赏。笔者相信对中西方国家饮食文化礼仪进行比较，能增强跨文化交际的意识，从而认识到宽容、理解及尊重文化差异对提高文化交际能力至关重要。
1.撰写毕业论文是检验学生在校学习成果的重要措施，也是提高教学质量的重要环节。大学生在毕业前都必须完成毕业论文的撰写任务。申请学位必须提交相应的学位论文，经答辩通过后，方可取得学位。可以这么说，毕业论文是结束大学学习生活走向社会的一个中介和桥梁。毕业论文是大学生才华的第一次显露，是向祖国和人民所交的一份有份量的答卷，是投身社会主义现代化建设事业的报到书。一篇毕业论文虽然不能全面地反映出一个人的才华，也不一定能对社会直接带来巨大的效益，对专业产生开拓性的影响。实践证明，撰写毕业论文是提高教学质量的重要环节，是保证出好人才的重要措施。2.通过撰写毕业论文，提高写作水平是干部队伍“四化”建设的需要。党中央要求，为了适应现代化建设的需要，领导班子成员应当逐步实现“革命化、年轻化、知识化、专业化”。这个“四化”的要求，也包含了对干部写作能力和写作水平的要求。3.提高大学生的写作水平是社会主义物质文明和精神文明建设的需要。在新的历史时期，无论是提高全族的科学文化水平，掌握现代科技知识和科学管理方法，还是培养社会主义新人，都要求我们的干部具有较高的写作能力。在经济建设中，作为领导人员和机关的办事人员，要写指示、通知、总结、调查报告等应用文；要写说明书、广告、解说词等说明文；还要写科学论文、经济评论等议论文。在当今信息社会中，信息对于加快经济发展速度，取得良好的经济效益发挥着愈来愈大的作用。写作是以语言文字为信号，是传达信息的方式。信息的来源、信息的收集、信息的储存、整理、传播等等都离不开写作。