关于塞尔的言语行为理论论文
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论文摘要: 人们对于语言本质的讨论从来没有停止过,言语行为理论的提出就是其中一项重大的突破。文章介绍了奥斯汀与塞尔的言语行为理论,系统地阐述了奥斯汀言语行为理论的内涵与价值以及塞尔对奥斯汀理论的完善与发展,最后总结了言语行为理论对语言学研究的重要意义。
论文关键词: 言语行为理论;间接言语行为;语用学
言语行为(speechact)指人们为实现交际目的而在具体的语境中使用语言的行为。…英国人类学家马林诺夫斯基(M.Malinovski)于1923年首先提出这一概念。马林诺夫斯基从人类学的角度,通过观察一个民族的文化生活和风俗习惯来研究语言的功能,认为与其把语言看成“思想的信号”,不如说它是“行为的方式”。在语用学兴起后,这一术语得到了广泛的运用,言语行为被理解为人类实现目的的一种活动,构成人类总活动的有机组成部分。人们的行为总要受到社会规约的支配,言语行为也就被看成受各种社会规约支配的一种行为。英国哲学家奥斯汀(J.L.Aus一曲)于20世纪50年代提出“言语行为理论”(speechacttheory),后经塞尔(J.R.Searle)的完善和发展,成为哲学、语言学的重要研究课题,也成为现代语用学核心内容之一。
一、奥斯汀的言语行为理论
言语行为理论是英国哲学家奥斯汀首先提出的。1957年,他到美国哈佛大学去做讲座,以《以言行事》为书名发表了讲座的全部内容,在其论述中,贯穿了一个思想:人们说话的目的不仅仅是为说话,当他说一句话的同时可以实施一个行为。言语行为理论的基本出发点是:人类语言交际的基本单位不应是词、句子或其他语言形式,而应是人们用词或句子所完成的行为。奥斯汀认为,传统语法把句子按其功能分成陈述句、疑问句、祈使句等类型,这不利于人们对言语的理解和使用,因为同一句子在不同的语境中具有不同的功能。他认为不少话语不仅是提供信息,而且是完成或帮助完成许多行为。奥斯汀在此基础上提出了言语行为理论。
(一)表述句与施为句
在《以言行事》中,奥斯汀首先区分了表述句(constative)和施为句(performative)。很久以来,哲学家所持的一种假设是:陈述之言的作用或是描述事物的状态,或是陈述某一事实,两者必居其一,别无他用,而陈述之言所作的描述或陈述只能是真实或者是谬误。哲学家历来关心的只限于陈述的可验证性(verifability),即如何验证某一陈述是真实的或是谬误的,以及如何规定某一个真实的陈述必须满足冉辱条件等。奥斯汀对哲学界语言研究中的这种传统观点提出了怀疑。他认为“许多陈述之言只不过是假陈述”(pseudo—state—ment),人们所说的许多话语貌似陈述,但它们根本不以坦直地记叙或传递有关事实的信息为目的,或仅仅是部分地以此为目的。有时没有必要也无从区分语句的“真”或“假”,因为有些句子一说出来就是一种行为,而行为只有适当不适当之分,没有真假之分。奥斯汀主张区分有真假之分的句子和有适当不适当之分的句子。有真假之分的句子为表述句,其功能在于断言或陈述事实和描述状态、报道事态,所表述内容是可以验证的,即或是真实,或是谬误;有适当不适当之分的句子为施为句,它们不具有报道、描述和表述的功能,却具有实施某些行为的功能。施为句的话语都是不能验证的,它们无所谓真实或谬误。奥斯汀用了四个例句来说明这类话语:
1)Id0(用于结婚仪式过程中);
2)Inanle this ship Elizabeth(用于船的命名仪式中);
3)I give and bequeath my watch to my brohter(用于遗嘱中);
4)I bet you six penceit will rain tomorrow(用于打赌)。
在特定的情况下,特定的人说这些话实际上构成了某些行为的实施。换言之,说话人在说这些话的时候不是在作陈述或描述,而是在完成某一动作,如结婚、命名、遗赠、打赌。
(二)言语行为顺利完成的必要条件
奥斯汀强调,施为句虽然没有真假,但仍有一些条件必须满足,否则就不能起到实施行为的作用。通过话语成功地实施行为,第一个条件是说话者必须是具备实施某一行为的条件的人,必须存在实施这个行为的合适的对象。例如,没有手表,就谈不上遗赠手表。第二个条件是说话人必须具有诚意,缺乏诚意则不能有所为。第三个条件是说话人对自己所说的话不能反悔。如果没有合适的程序,如果不是合适的人说出,言语行为不会奏效。同样,即使人员合适,如果场合不对也不行。如英国女王在家里说“InamehteshiptheQueenElizabeth”,这句话也不会奏效。对有些施为行为,有关人员的思想状态至关重要,如一个实施许诺行为的人必须准备兑现自己的诺言。
(三)言语行为三分说
随着研究的深人,奥斯汀意识到某种意义上每个句子都可以用来实施行为,不是只有施为句才有这种功能。就连像“state”这样典型的描述性、叙事性动词都可以用来实施行为。当一个人说“Is tate that Iamres ponsible forit”,他就发表了一个声明,承担了一种责任。于是,奥斯汀又把人们说话时所实施的言语行为分作三类,即“以言指事”(1ocution)(又叫言内行为)、“以言行事”(illocution)(又叫言外行为)、“以言成事”(perlo.cuifon)(又称言后行为),或称言语行为三分说。以言指事泛指一切用声音说出的有意义的话语;以言行事涉及说话者的意图,如:断定、疑问、命令、描写、解释、道歉、感谢、祝贺等;以言成事涉及说话者在听话者身上所达到的效果,如:使之高兴、振奋、发怒、恐惧、信服等,以促使对方做某事或放弃原来的打算。每一个话语都同时完成三种行为。例如,A对B说“Closehtedoor”,这是言内行为;A的意图是让B关门,这是言外行为;B听了A的话后,把门关上了,达到了说话的效果,这是言后行为。可见,言语行为理论对于解释言语行为的意图具有重要意义。
此外,奥斯汀把言外行为分为五类:
1)评价行为类/裁决类(verdictives):表达裁决或评价,如法官或裁判的裁决。
2)施权行为类/行使类(ex—ecutives):表达权力的实施。
3)承诺行为类/承诺类(commissives):表达承诺或者宣布意图。
4)论理行为类/阐述类(expositives):用于解释、阐述、论证。
5)表态行为类/表态类(behabitives):用于表明态度。
二、塞尔对言语行为理论的发展
奥斯汀的言语行为理论创立后立即引出了大量哲学论述。其中美国哲学家塞尔的影响最大,他将言语系统化,阐述了言语行为的原则和分类标准,提出了间接言语行为理论(indirectspeechacthteory)这一特殊的言语行为类型。正是通过他的努力,才使言语行为理论成为当今语用学的一个重要组成部分。
(一)言语行为的原则与分类
塞尔不是简单地继承奥斯汀的言语行为理论,他把言语行为理论对孤立的话语意义的研究提升到对人类交际的研究。他认为使用语言就像人类许多别的活动一样是一种受到规则制约的有意图的行为。这些规则区分为调节规则(regula—ifverules)和构成规则(consittuitverules)。调节规则调节先前存在的行为形式,这种活动的存在逻辑上独立于规则的存在;构成规则不仅调节而且创造或规定新的行为方式,这种活动在逻辑上是依赖于规则的存在而存在的。[6奥斯汀试图论证这样一个假设:一种语言的语义学被视为一系列构成规则的系统,并且以言行事的行为就是按照这种构成规则完成的行为。塞尔继承了奥斯汀的“意图”论,认为说一种语言就是完成一系列的言语活动,每一个言语行为都体现了说话人的意图。
塞尔在研究和继承的基础上,将奥斯汀的言语行为理论修正为以言行事理论和间接言语行为理论。他把奥斯汀的言语行为三分说改造为命题内容和以言行事。他认为,要成功地实施某一言语行为,除了一般的输入和输出条件外,必须满足以下四个条件:
第一,本条件(essentialcondi—tions):说话者打算通过说出一个语句,使他承担实施某一行为的义务;
第二,命题内容条件(con—tentconditions):说话者在说出一个语句时表达了一个命题,在表达命题时,说话者断定了自己将来的行为;
第三,预备条件(preparatorycondiitons):
1)听话者愿意说话者实施某一行为,并且说话者相信他所要做的事是符合听话人的利益的,但这件事并非是他经常做的;
2)讲话者在事情的正常进程中将去实施某一行为,这对讲话者和听话者来说都是不明显的。以言行事要有一定的要旨(point)。语言中有一种最小努力原则在起作用,体现为以最小的语言努力去获得最大的以言行事结果的原则;第四,真诚条件(sinceirtycondi—tions):说话者打算从事某一行为。在这四个条件中,
第四个条件具有构成规则的范式,
而第一到第三条件则与调节规则相对应。在将“合适条件”(lfexibilityconditions)(保证言语行为得以成功实施的条件)作为使用恰当的以言行事指示语的规则的过程中,塞尔还提到“表达原则”,认为它可以单独地使基本上是语用上的言语行为的分析与字面意义的语义分析相一致,这样就可以把言语行为理论分为两类:
一类为偏重于语义的言语行为理论(semantically—oriented),
另一类为偏重于语用的言语行为理论(pragmatically—oriented),前者关注显示言语行为特征的表达式的分析,而后者将交际过程作为其出发点。
塞尔将言语行为重新分为五类,他把他的分类建立在以言行事(ilocutionary)与语法(gram—matica1)指示词和不同的言语行为所确定的不同的“词语”与“世界”的关系上。这五类言语行为是:
1)断言类(assertive),以前也称描述类(repre.sentatives),指描述世界上的状况或事件的言语行为,如断言、主张、报告等;
2)指示类(directives),说话者想使听话者做某事,如建议、请求、命令等;
3)承诺类(commissives),指说话人表示将要做某事的言语行为,如许诺、恐吓等;
4)表达类(ex.pressives),在这种言语行为中,说话者表达自己对某事的情感和态度,如道歉、抱怨、感谢、祝贺等;
5)宣告类(declaratives),指能改变世界上某种事态的言语行为,例如法庭上法官说:“Guilyt!”,被告便成了罪人。
(二)间接言语行为
塞尔对言语行为理论的另一个重大贡献是提出了“间接言语行为理论”。一个人直接通过话语形式的字面意义来实现其交际意图,这是直接的言语行为;当我们通过话语形式取得了话语本身之外的效果时,这就称作间接言语行为(indi—rcctspeechact)。简单地讲,间接言语行为就是通过做某一言外行为来做另一件言外行为,也可以说成是:“通过施行了一个言外行为间接地施行了另一个言外行为。”间接言语行为理论要解决的问题是:说话人如何通过“字面用意”来表达间接的“言外之力”,即语用用意,或者听话人如何从说话人的“字面用意”中推断出其间接的“言外之力”,即语用用意。塞尔提出了规约性间接言语行为和非规约性间接言语行为的理论,所谓规约性间接言语行为,指对“怎么用意”作一般性推断而得出的间接言语行为。所谓对字面用意做出一般推断,实际上就是根据话语的句法形式,按习惯可立即推断出间接的“言外之力”(语用用意)。非规约性间接言语行为较复杂,也较不稳定。规约性间接言语行为按习惯就可以推断话语的间接言外之意,但非规约性间接言语行为却主要依靠说话双方共知的语言信息和所处的语境来推断。
间接言语行为在言语交际中是非常普遍的,陈述句不是陈述句,祈使句不是祈使句,疑问句不是疑问句的情况比比皆是。有时候,发话者说出一句话,借此表示该句字面意思,但同时又表达字面之外的其他含义,也就是说,话语意义与语句本身意义不完全一致。如:“Can you give me the book?”字面意思是询问听话人是否有此能力,但其言外之意则往往是请求。该请求是以询问形式发出的,但还要表达请求这一言语行为。至于如何理解像“It’Scoldinhere.”这类非规约性的间接言语行为旬,情况就比较复杂了。发话者可能真的是陈述这一事实,也可能是请求对方关上窗或门,或打开电暖气。遇到这种情况时,听话者需依赖语境、双方共知或语用推理等等才能奏效。
间接言语行为的表现形式是多种多样的,影响间接言语行为理解的因素也是多方面的,有时取决于语境,有时取决于听话人的身份、背景等,有的还取决于听话人的分析、推理能力。因此间接言语行为句的理解已不单纯是语义范畴,还包括语用范畴。
三、结语
以奥斯汀、塞尔为代表的言语行为理论学家把语言研究从以句子本身的结构为重点转向句子表达的意义、意图和社会功能。言语行为理论的提出,无论对语言研究还是对应用语言学、社会语言学、语用学以及语言习得研究都产生了重大影响。一方面,它使学者们在有关方面的研究从以语法或语言形式为中心转向以言语功能为中心;从以单句为中心转向以语篇为中心;从以语言本身为中心转向以语言使用者、社团以及语言环境等为中心;另一方面,言语行为理论使诸多研究从以语言知识为中心转向以交际功能为中心;也使外语教学从以语言形式和教学方法为中心转向以语言功能和教学内容为中心。这样,使得学习者不光掌握了一定的词汇量和语法知识,知道了正确的句子结构,而且还学会了如何适当地使用语言以避免出现语用错误。因此言语行为理论是研究语言使用问题的基本理论,它为语言学的研究开辟了一个新的领域。
论文关键词:言语行为理论;间接言语行为;意向性
论文摘要:言语行为理论由奥斯汀提出,经塞尔的完善与发展,已成为哲学、语言学的重要研究课题,更是现代语用学的核心内容之一。塞尔的间接言语行为理论从使用和交际的角度研究语言的意义,为认识言外之力的本质提供了独到的解释方法。塞尔关注语言和心智的关系,认为意义必须联系存在于言语行为中的意向性来解释。探讨了塞尔的间接言语行为及其所蕴含的语言哲学观。
一、理论源起
言语行为理论(SpeechActTheory)的产生有其深刻的历史背景,追溯该理论产生的源头,可将其与西方哲学的发展联系起来考察。西方哲学从古希腊到20世纪的发展通常被概括为一个三阶段模式,其中心论题为:本体论一认识论一语言。20世纪初,哲学产生了一次根本性的“语言转向”(linguisticturn),语言取代认识论成为哲学研究的中心课题。“语言转向”的产生,标志着英美分析哲学时代的开始。从使用的分析方法上看,分析哲学又分为两大派别。其一为逻辑分析派,又称逻辑实证学派;其二为日常分析派,又称日常语言学派。英国哲学家奥斯汀(J·Austin)针对逻辑实证主义的真值条件语义论提出言语行为理论,即著名的“言语行为三分说”:说话行为(locutionaryact)、施事行为(illocutionaryact)和取效行为(perlocutionaryact)。奥斯汀把施事行为分为5大类型:判定式(verdictives)、执行式(exercitives)、承诺式(commissives)、行为式(behavi—tives)、阐述式(expositives)。言语行为理论从行为的角度来看语言活动,抓住了语言的动态特征,因此它成为语用学的重要组成部分。
奥斯汀对施事行为的分类由于缺乏明确的标准,招致了许多学者的批评,但他的一些看法为后来的研究奠定了基础。美国语言哲学家塞尔(J·Sear—1e)继承并发展了奥斯汀的.言语行为理论,提出了著名的间接言语行为理论。塞尔言语行为理论的建构体现在他对语言学哲学(linguisticphilosophy)与语言哲学(thephilosophyoflanguage)的区分上。语言学哲学试图用分析语言中的特定词语及其他成分的普通用法来解决特殊哲学问题,语言哲学试图对语言一般特征作出哲学的阐释性描述。在塞尔看来,前者是关于方法的研究,而后者是关于主体的研究。塞尔认为他的理论属于语言哲学而不是语言学哲学。在语言哲学的研究过程中,塞尔把言语行为界定为语言交际的最小单位,把言语行为放在研究语言、意义和交际的中心地位。
二、间接言语行为理论
(一)塞尔对施事行为的分类
塞尔把言语行为理论提高为一种解释人类语言交际的理论。在他看来,讲一种语言就是完成一系列的语言活动。在研究话语的过程中,塞尔区分了命题内容和施事行为,修正了奥斯汀的言语行为三分说,认为每个语句都包括:说话行为(utteranceact)、命题内容行为(prepositionalact)、施事行为(i1—locutinaryact)、取效行为(perlocutionaryact)。
在实施言语行为的规则方面,塞尔认为,言语行为是按照一定的规约来实施的,施事行为是一种规约性行为。塞尔提出构成性规则(constitutiverules)与调节性规则(regulativerules)的区别。构成性规则是创立或定义新的行为形式的规则,它不能离开行为而独立存在。调节性规则只作出规定,它在逻辑上独立于行为而存在。在塞尔看来,调节性规则是外部的社会规则,对施事行为不起制约作用,而构成性规则是内在的语义规则,施事行为是根据构成性规则衍生而来的。塞尔提出了成功执行施事行为的构成性规则,把这些规则分为四类:命题内容规则(prepositionalcontentrule)、预备性规则(preparatoryrule)、真诚性规则(sincerityrule)和基本规则(essen—tialrule)。塞尔对这些规则的确立,经过了从具体分析到抽象概括再到具体认识的过程,相对于奥斯汀的分析而言,在方法上更科学、更令人信服。
塞尔对言语行为的一个突出的贡献就是给言语行为分类,给言语行为的不同类型或范畴以理论上的说明。塞尔认为在任何语言哲学中最明显的问题之一是有多少种使用语言的方式。维特根斯坦认为,对这个问题是不能用任何有限的范畴来回答的。他在(哲学研究)中说:“有多少种句子呢?譬如说断定,提问以及命令?—有无数种句子:我们叫做‘符号’,‘词’、‘句子’的东西有无数种用法。”塞尔反对维特根斯坦的观点,并从12个方面对施事行为的分类标准进行分析,最后认为以下3个方面是至关重要的,它们构成了分类的基础:
(1)施事目的(illo—cutionarypoint)。这是分类的基础。
(2)适从向(di—rectionoffit)。有些施事行为试图让言语适应客观世界(言语~客观世界),而其他一些则试图让客观世界适应言语(客观世界一言语)。
(3)心理状态(psychologicalstate)。在此基础上,塞尔把施事行为归纳为5大类:断言类(assertives)、指令类(direc—tives)、承诺类(commissives)、表达类(expressives)和宣告类(declarations)。
(二)间接言语行为
塞尔首先注意到间接言语行为(indirectspeechacts),提出直接言语行为和间接言语行为的区别。他说,当一个施事行为间接地通过另外一个言语行为表达时,间接言语行为就发生了。我们知道,句子的形式和功能之间并不存在绝对的一一对应关系。在日常谈话中,人们为了讲求礼貌,在想让别人做某事的时候,往往避免直接使用命令句,而寻求一种比较婉转的表达方式。塞尔认为,在间接言语行为中,说话人和听话人沟通,能让听话人明白话语中字面意思之外的用意,他所依靠的是他同听话人共知的背景信息。塞尔认为间接言语行为可分为规约性(conventional)间接言语行为和非规约性(non一con—ventional)间接言语行为。规约性间接言语行为指对“字面用意”作一般性推断而得出的间接言语行为。这类行为已经形成一种习惯用法或语言形式,说话人和听话人可能已经感觉不出这类言语行为在字面上的施为用意。非常规性间接言语行为较复杂和不确定,它更多地取决于互知的背景信息和所处的语境。
塞尔对间接言语行为理论的解释很大程度上解决了语句的字面意义和说话人的施为用意的关系问题,揭示了语句的结构和功能之间存在着的多元关系。但塞尔的学说受到关联论者的强烈批评。在20世纪80年代的语用学界,以Sperber和Wilson为代表的理论家简评了塞尔的理论,声称言语行为要么不在研究之列,要么取而代之。其观点是言语行为理论虽有一定的解释力,但其分类并不是交际的一部分,言语行为理论没有存在的必要。不可否认,言语行为理论注重描写的经验主义的分类,确实不能全面有效地说明具有动态性质的交际过程。但是,塞尔的间接言语行为理论解释了日常生活中许多看似不连贯的话语是如何有效进行的,他将人的潜意识的对施为用意的理解过程明示出来,使人类对自身的语言交际过程有更加深刻地理解。人们在接受一个言语行为时,一般并没有意识到有不同层次的行为,因而也不能分辨这些言语行为中所含的不同意义,而塞尔的间接言语行为理论使人对自身表达、理解意义过程的认识上升到一个更高的阶段,为语言研究的发展作出了极大的贡献。 (三)对间接言语行为的解释
对于如何解释语言交际中的间接言语行为,理论家有两种不同的看法:习语论(idiomtheory)和推理论(inferencetheory)。习语论者认为某些话语可以间接地行使某些功能是由于它们本身的语言形式或习惯用法,他们试图通过习惯用法在某些语言形式与它们间接地实施的功能之间建立起联系,来解释语言的间接用法。但事实上,一种句式并不总是用以行使其一种功能,形式和功能之间不存在一一对应的关系。推理论者认为说话人经过一系列的推理步骤才从句子的字面意义推导出说话人的真正意图,重视对语境因素的考虑。塞尔是个推理论者,他认为在实施间接言语行为时,说话人依赖交际双方所共有的包括语言的和非语言的背景信息,以及听话人的逻辑推理能力向听话人传达施事目的。可以结合这两种理论来解释间接言语行为。有些形式在大多数情况下用以行使某种功能,习语论可以解释某些间接言语行为。但绝大多数情况下,一句话在不同语境中说出就有不同意义,随谈话的时间、地点等因素的变化而变化,要通过语境因素才能推导出话语所具有的施为用意,推理论有更强的解释力。
三、意向性
进人20世纪70年代之后,塞尔的语用学观念及其研究重点发生了较大的转变。塞尔认为,我们的大多心理状态有一个共通的特征,即它们都与某种事态或对象相关。你在相爱时,这份爱恋总是指向某个或一些特定的对象。这就是精神状态的“关于性”(aboutness)和“指向性”(directedness)。塞尔统称为“意向性”,并在《意向性》(Intentionality)一书中详尽阐述了该理论。塞尔认为言语行为的一个重要特征是它具有意向性,在这种行为中,不仅使用了语言符号,而且还表达了说话者的意向,语言符号在这里被用作表达意向的手段。根据前文所述,塞尔把施事行为分为5种,他认为这5种行为是以经验为基础的。从意向性理论的角色来看,意向性决定了言语行为会采取这些类型方式。
其实在《言语行为》一书中就已经存在着转向精神哲学研究的契机。在考察语用行为的诚实条件时,塞尔强调,要使陈述成为诚实的,就要求说话者必须对陈述的事态持有信念;要使命令成为诚实的,说话者必须对接受者的响应存有意愿,等等。无论哪一种语言行为,如果说话者内心没有相应的心理状态,就不能说是诚实的。在塞尔看来,如果丢开精神状态的意向性,那么话语只不过是从嘴里发出的一种声音而已。同样,句子也不过是写在纸上的物理符号而已。话语本身没有意义可言。那么它怎么能以各种不同的话语形式表达无限多样的命题内容?那就是通过意向状态。正是在意向状态中,人们在说话的同时也把自己的意向性转移到本身并无意义可言的声音与符号中。正是意向性这种精神状态的特征,使得语用行为成为可堋H尔的意向性理论体现了语言与心智的关系,是言语行为理论的深化和发展?
四、结语
塞尔把言语行为理论系统化、严密化,对言语行为理论的发展作出了不可磨灭的贡献,开辟了语言哲学和语用学研究的新夭地。塞尔提出间接言语行为理论,在很大程度上解决了语句的字面意义和说话人的言外之力的关系问题,弥补了早期言语行为理论的不足。塞尔重视对施事行为的研究,强调说话人的意识活动和心理状态对言语行为的影响与作用,提出了意向性理论。塞尔的学说对当今语言哲学、认知科学、语用学等领域产生了巨大影响,为我们全面理解语言的现象和本质提供了一条新的思路。
随着对 英语 文化 学习的不断深入,随着英语重要地位的不断确立,英语语言学的研究工作也越来越深入。下文是我为大家整理的关于英语语言学论文 范文 参考的内容,欢迎大家阅读参考! 关于英语语言学论文范文参考篇1 浅探英语语言学中的幽默话语 幽默是指在人类交际的过程中,能够引人发笑的话语、动作和表情等,其内容丰富多彩,表现形式多种多样,比例幽默话语、幽默动作、幽默音乐等等。因为人们的交际活动多依赖于语言,所以幽默也多来源于话语当中。 一、英语语言学中的幽默话语 在繁忙的生活中,幽默是一剂强力润滑剂。幽默话语是借助于语言手段来表述幽默的。它是以语言为媒介,根据特定的情境下,以轻松诙谐的语调,机智、风趣、戏谑的话语风格,通过讽刺、夸张、映射、双关等手法,来表达话语者自己的思想和观点,并使受话者不知不觉地接受,达到“随风潜入夜,润物细无声”的效果和境界。幽默话语往往带有一些意味深长的色彩,对揭露生活中的丑恶或不公平现象,还可以起到发人深省的作用。而对于受话者来说,要把话语和当时具体的语境线索结合起来,利用自己既有的语言知识和社会认知,去发现说话者的言外之意和要表达的真实意图,才能真正的理解幽默,并从中获得愉悦。 例如,“Mr Zhou have a sharp tongue,look out,it doesn’t cut your throat.”这句话看起来是像是在说舌头,但是,我们把这句话放到语境中,就可以想到,这里的“a sharp tongue”并不是什么锋利的舌头,而是牙尖嘴利、毒舌的意思,是发话者幽默、含蓄、间接的表达方式。 二、幽默话语与合作原则 (一)合作原则 胡范畴认为,所谓幽默话语是语言的各要素通过变异和创造而出来的。而美国语言哲学家Grice则认为,幽默话语的作用是为了确保交际活动顺利进行。Grice认为,在人们运用语言进行交际时,交际的双方(发话者和受话者)还要遵守一些先决条件和原则,例如使用双方都能熟练运用的语言、交谈内容是双方都熟悉的话题,还有最重要的合作原则(cooperative principle,CP)。合作原则包括四个范畴,即数量准则、质量准则、关联准则和方式准则。在合作原则下,要求发话者和受话者者要端正态度,在谈话中做到“一唱一和”,避免造成“鸡同鸭讲”“话不投机半句多”的情况。 (二)合作原则与幽默话语的关系 如果说要遵循“数量准则、质量准则、关联准则和方式准则”的合作原则是一位西装革履、步态稳健的中年人,那么幽默话语就是一位穿着休闲时尚、语态随意轻松的新新人类。合作原则与幽默话语的结合,就是传统沉稳美与时尚活力没的结合,在这种结合中,传统的合作原则难免要接受新的挑战,甚至在一定程度上被打破。以下,本文以数量准则和质量准则为例,对合作原则与幽默话语进行举例分析。 (1)幽默话语与数量准则 合作原则之质量准则要求说话者和听话者之间交谈的内容要包含适当的信息量。但是在实际的语言环境中,我们常常需要打破这一数量原则,来起到幽默话语的喜剧效果。例如: Jack:I saw Mr Green having lunch with a woman the day before yesterday. Eason:Oh my god!Is she beautiful? Jack:Yes,she is not only beautiful,but also young. Eason:Dose Mrs Green know about it? Jack:Of was the young and beautiful woman. 在这段对话中,Eason理解的和Mr Green共进午餐的年轻貌美的女人应该是除了Mrs Green以外的其他女人,同时也不是Mr Green家里的其他女性亲戚。而Jack如果不想引起误会的话,应该直接说他前天看到Mr Green和Mrs Green共进午餐,但是为了引起Eason的好奇心,促使他进一步追问,就在第一句话中只说看到Mr Green与一位女性共进午餐,这虽然是违反了数量准则的,但也就此产生体现了幽默话语的有趣、逗乐原则。而Eason心理期待与实际情况之间的落差导致其认知的突然重构,给交谈双方带来乐趣,达到愉悦和反讽的效果。 (2)幽默话语与质量准则 合作原则之质量准则要求说话者不说自知是虚假的话,不说无稽之谈,但是在幽默话语中,说话者经常会采用诸如反语、夸张的休息手法。这样虽然会打破“质量准则”,但是带来的幽默效果也是非常显著的。在上世纪90年代即被引入中国并风靡十几年的美国NBC情景剧《老友记》中就存在很多这样的例子。例如: Phoebe:You do not want to wine the lottery? Rose:Uh surely I do,and I want to be the king of my own country. 通过思考并分析这段对话,我们得出Phoebe问Rose,你是否对有意买彩票,有没有兴趣去试一下自己的运气,通过片中的特点情景和人物关系,我们可以看出Rose对彩票不感兴趣,但是她没有直接了当的说“没兴趣”,而是采用了幽默话语说“想啊,我当然想,我还想当国家元首呢。”因为一个平民是几乎没有可能成为国家元首的,所以Rose的话语是违背了质量准则的。但是,这种“有意违背”和“夸大其词”正是这段对话的笑点所在。 三、幽默话语与指称语 指称语(indexicals)就是具有指称功能的语言结构形式,是日常生活中常见的语言现象。是发话人与受话人,在共同的知识环境、语言环境下,可以彼此理解的,映射出话语的,潜在的指称义和指称关系。当指称语所指示的信息不明确或者出现谬误,发话人的意思就是变得令人费解,幽默话语很可能就此产生。同时,指称语还受到人文背景、社会文化、交际距离、环境等多种因素的影响。指称语可以分为人称指称语、时间指称语、地点指称语等等,其中以人称指称语最为常见。我本文就以人称指称语为例,幽默话语和指称语之间的关系。 人称指称语可以分为第一人称、第二人称和第三人称,是对话参与者角色关系的客观体现。第一人称是发话人、第二人称是受话人、第三人称是话语谈及的对象。在话语中,如果这种规则被打破,就会出现人称指称语不相对应的现象,可能会起到幽默效果。例如: Jim was down the local pub with his mate Mark. Jim:Do you know,Mark,I never kissed my wife before we were about you?” Mark:I don’t know,What was her maiden name?” 这段对话是Jim与Mark之间的酒后之言。Jim的提问,真正的意思是“Have you ever kissed your wife before you were married?” 在指称语中,第二人称是针对受话人而言的,谈及的是隐私或伤痛,所以受话人Mark就采用了幽默话语来回避问题,轻描淡写地将这一问题带过去了,其机智幽默值得我们参照和学习。 四、关联理论与幽默话语 从关联理论的角度来看,受话者会故意曲解发话者的意图,到处与发话者截然相反的信息,产生意外的幽默效果。例如: Teacher:Tom,there were three peaches,ate one,how many would you have? Tom:Three,tow outside and one inside. Tom作为孩子,其对事物的思考方式不同于成人,因为无法认清老师出题的意图,而给出出人意料的答案,起到了幽默的效果。 结语: 从上述讨论中,我们可以看出,在不同语境中,人们会对对话意义、指称语、 语言意义等的理解产生偏差或者错位。幽默话语具有深层次的、含蓄的、深沉的、巧妙的作用,避免交际中的尴尬或难堪,增强语言表达的效果,可以起到愉悦交流、点缀生活的作用。 关于英语语言学论文范文参考篇2 浅谈从建构主义角度探析英语语言学教学 21 世纪 教育 的基点是终身学习,是不断提出问题、解决问题的学习,是敢于打破狭隘的专业界限面向真实复杂任务的学习。在英语课程学习过程中,学生普遍认为英语语言学这门课更加的枯燥,无味和吃力。英语语言学课程涉及面广、内容多、概念多、理论多,理论性和实践性都很强;同时英语语言学课时少,而语言学的发展引起的教学内容不断扩充,暴露出和教学时数有限之间日益严重的矛盾。因而继续沿用传统的教学理念和教学模式进行教学已经不能适应新形势下的教学过程,必须用一种更好的教学方式,使学生和老师尽快适应新形势的要求。 随着建构主义学习理论的出现,提出了建构主义的教学设计。建构主义强调情境、协作、会话和意义建构四大要素,倡导以“学”为中心的理念。将建构主义的教学理论引入到英语语言学教学过程中,进行了许多有益的尝试,取得了显著的效果。 1 建构主义的四大要素 在 学习 方法 上建构主义提倡的是教师指导下的以学生为主体的学习,在学习环境上要求是开放的、充满意义解释和建构性的,理想的学习环境主要有情境、协作、会话和意义建构四大要素构成。 “情境”:学习环境中的情境必须有利于学习者对所学内容的意义建构。这就意味着在建构主义学习环境下,要把为学生创设建构意义的情境问题看作是教学设计的主要内容之一。“在课堂教学中播放有助于理解教学内容的录像、录音、参与 社会实践 、向学生提供网络的丰富的学习资源等等,凡是有助于学习者理解掌握学习内容的情境,都属于情境创设的范畴。” “协作”:协作发生在学习过程的始终。协作在一定意义上是协商的意思。协商主要有自我协商和相互协商。 “会话”:会话是协作过程中的不可缺少环节。学习小组成员之间通过会话来商讨如何完成规定的学习任务达到意义建构的目标,怎样更多地获得教师或他人的指导和帮助等等,推进学习进程。在会话的过程中,每个学习者的思维成果(智慧)为整个学习群体所共享 ,因此会话是达到意义建构的重要手段之一。 “意义建构”:这是整个学习过程的最终目标。在学习过程中帮助学生建构意义就要帮助学生对当前学习的内容所反映事物的性质、规律以及该事物与其他事物之间的内在联系达到较深刻的理解。 2 建构主义环境下对英语语言学教学启示 强调以学为中心的设计 在建构主义学习环境下,师生的地位、作用与传统的教学发生了很大的变化。学生由知识的被动接受者转变为信息加工的主体、知识意义的主动建构者。教师也不再是知识的灌输者,而是教学环境的设计者、学生学习的组织者和指导者、知识的管理者,是学生的学术顾问。因此,教师要从前台退到幕后,从“演员”转变为“导演”。在建构主义的语言学教学中,学习环境中要充分发挥学生的主动性,教师要为学生创设尽可能真实的情境去应用他们所学的知识。具体来说,英语英语语言学课程教学应该激发教学主体的主动性和积极性,强调教学任务的适合性和针对性,注重教学环境的互动性和趣味性。 强调学习环境的设计 建构主义教学设计的重心便是学习环境的设计。这里的学习环境是一个支持和促进学习者自主探索、自主学习的场所。学习环境的设计应围绕支持学习者开展有意义的学习来创设支持条件。它主要包括基于问题的学习环境的设计、合作学习环境的设计、真实情境的设计等。建构主义学习环境的设计的宗旨是通过支持学习者的有意义学习,促进学习者的发展。 例如,在讲授语言的任意性时,不少学生对于语言中音和义之间没有必然的联系这一属性存在疑惑,原因是在语言中的确存在一些音和义有一定联系的语言现象,如拟声词,对于这种问题,教师可以在深入讲解之前,给学生布置一些任务,让他们课前收集英语中的拟声词,并让其与汉语中对应的拟声词相比较,然后以 报告 的形式在课上做出来,教师则在这一过程中起着引导、监督、组织的作用,在学生做完报告后,教师做出归纳 总结 。 教学任务的适合性和针对性 语言教学中任务的设置必须以学生的实际情况为前提,任务太困难或太容易都不利于学生主动建构知识。在选择英语语言学课程教学内容时,应适当减少课堂教学内容的广度和深度。所选课堂教学内容如下:语言、语言学、语音学、音系学、句法学、语义学、语用学、二语习得、语言与文化。明确学习任务,选择训练方式,使学生有足够的机会进行练习。教师应懂得如何控制自己的情绪,并通过积极的语言来激励学生。应及时地对正确回答问题,出色完成学习任务的学生进行表扬。如:Well done!Very good!Good job! Excel lent!这些词语看似简单,却能给学生以信心和动力。同时,对学生的缺点和不足要多指导,少批评少责备。 3 建构主义的教学评价 建构主义评价观具有几个方面的特征。首先,诊断性和 反思 性是建构主义学习评价的重要组成部分。这就意味着,学习者必须从事自我监控、自我测试、自我检查等活动,以诊断和判断他们在学习中所追求的是否是自己设置的目标。其次,建构主义评价观认为评价是评价者和被评价者“协商”进行的共同心理建构过程,评价受“多元主义”价值观所支配。因此,建构主义注重评价主体的多元化和评价方式的多样化。再次,建构主义认为,评价是学习者活动过程中的一个必然组成部分,而不是教学后的评价,它是一个持续性和实时性的镶嵌过程。因此,建构主义强调过程性评价,倡导“质性”的方法。所谓过程性评价是在某项教学活动的过程中,为使活动效果更好而不断进行的评价,它能及时了解阶段教学的结果和学生学习的进展情况、存在问题等,以便及时反馈,及时调整和改进教学工作。可见,建构主义评价观提倡以学为中心的理念,更加关注学生的发展。 4 结束语 建构主义教学观为课堂教学提供了新模式,为习惯于被动式接受的学生阐释了学习的新理念,从而为英语语言学课堂的教与学带来了新的启示和体验。在英语语言学课堂教学中教授学习策略,引导学生自主学习及改进 教学方法 。这些方面有助于学生建构知识,形成能力。 参考文献 [1]陈莉.社会建构主义与外语教学[J].外语论坛, 2003(1). [2]胡壮麟.对中国英语教育的若干思考[J].外语研究, 2002(3). [3]盛群力、__强.现代教学设计论[M].浙江教育出版社,2000
On suprasegmental features Introduction So far we havebeen talking about phonetic features as they apply to single phonetic segments,or phones. Phonetic features can also apply to a string of severalsounds, such as a syllable, or an entire word or utterance. The study ofphonological features which applies to groups larger than the single segment,are known as suprasegmentalfeatures, such as the syllable or the word. The study of these features is knownas prosody. It mainly includessyllable, stress, pitch, tone, and intonation. In this paper, I will talk aboutthe suprasegmental features ingreat detail. Key words: phonetic, suprasegmental. Syllable The most obvious prosodic feature in languageis the syllable. Let's briefly discuss the notion of syllables. Like all of our other basic linguistic concepts,although everyone knows what a syllable is, the concept "syllable" isdifficult to define in absolute terms. A syllable can be divided into threeparts, that is, onset, nucleus, and coda, of which nucleus is a must. Asyllable that has no coda is called an open syllable while a syllable with codais called a closed syllable. In English only long vowels and diphthongs canoccur in open syllables. The onset may be empty or filled by a cluster of asmany as three consonants, while the coda position may be filled as many as fourconsonants. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice asto where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the some languages, syllables are always open,that is, they always end in a vowel, never a consonant. (Hawaiian) On the other hand, every Hawaiian syllable must begin with a consonant. (Aloha spoken as a single word beginsin a glottal stop.) In other languages, syllables are always closed; they mustend in a consonant (Navaho): Háá'ishah dididiljah. Let's build a fire. Táá diné 'ooljéé'go naaskai' Three men went to the moon. (LikeHawaiian, they must also begin in a consonant.)Stress The nature of stress The word stress is used differently bydifferent authors, and the relationship between stress, emphasis, accent andprominence is also defined differently. Robins has defined it as “a genericterm for the relatively greater force exerted in the articulation of part ofutterance”. The nature of stress is simple enough—practically everyone wouldagree that the first syllable of words like“father”, “open” is stressed, thatthe middle syllable is stressed in “potato”, “apartment” and the final syllableis stressed in “about”, “perhaps”, and most people feel they have some sort ofidea of what the difference is between stressed and unstressed syllables,though they might explain it in many different production of stress is generallybelieved to depend on the speaker using more muscular energy than is used forunstressed syllables. From the perceptual point of view, all stressed syllableshave one characteristic in common, and that is “prominence”. Roach hasmanifested that at least four different factors are important to make asyllable prominent:i) Loudness: Most people seem to feelthat stressed syllables are louder than unstressed ones; in other words,loudness is a component of ) Length: The length of syllables hasan important part to play in prominence; the syllables which are made longerthan the others will be heard as ) Pitch: Pitch in speech is closelyrelated to the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds and to the musicalnotion of low-pitched and high-pitched notes; if one syllable is said with apitch that is noticeably different from that of the others, this will have astrong tendency to produce the effect of ) Quality: a syllable will tend to be prominentif it contains a vowel that is different in quality from neighboring vowels. Languages differ in how they use ) In some languages, eachsyllable is equally stressed or unstressed,as in Cambodian2) the syllable in eachword is more stressed. Theplace of stress is fixed on acertain syllable:1) initial. Finnish,Hungarian and other Finno-Ugric languages2) penultimate. Polish,3) final. ) Complex set ofrules. In Bulgarian nouns and verbs have separate sets of rules forstress placement. Hopi (phonetic: first syllable of a two syllableword: síkwi meat; inwords of three or more syllables, accent falls on the first long vowel: máamatsi to recognize; or onthe first short vowel before a consonant cluster: péntani to write; otherwise it falls on thenext to last syllable: wunúvtu standup)The place of stress is ) In Russian the stress iscompletely random: xoroshó, xoró) In English the stress ismore predictable but still random. Usually a middle syllable of a longerword receives the stress. In two syllable words stress is rando and oftenrenders differences in meaning: project/toproject, produce/produce, and insult/ to insult. Some languages have more than one stress perword: English is such a language. In English, words of foursyllables or more have a primaryand a secondary stress. SomeEnglish compounds have phrasal stress on the first element of thecompound. Phrasal stress often distinguishes meaning in adjective/nouncombinations. Sentence stress in English According to He Shanfen (1992), Englishsentence stress has two main functions:⑴ to indicate the important words in thesentence; ⑵ to serve as thebasis for the rhythmic structure of the sentence. Consequently, in connected English speech,sentence stress usually falls on content ( or lexical) words, which carry thebasic meaning of a sentence, . nouns, adjectives, adverbs etc. Those whichare usually unstressed in sentences are form (or structural) words, which showgrammatical relationships, such as articles, auxiliary and modal verbs,monosyllabic prepositions, Another prosodic feature is pitch, defined as the frequency ofvibration of vocal cords. Pitch is measured in hertzes. Physiologically, pitch tends to be higher inwoman than in men and higher before puberty than after puberty. Also, thepitch of women's voices tends to lower with old age; the pitch of men's voicestends to get higher with age. Despite these physiological, non-linguisticuniversal, each language uses pitch distinctions for linguisticallymeaningful purposes. Startingfrom the lowest pitch on the initial syllable, the pitch of each subsequentsyllable raises until the word reaches the "peak". From that point,pitch either remains at the same level for the remainder of the word or itdrops again. The choice between maintenance of high pitch or allowing it todrop is a matter of formality: pitch is maintained in formal or careful speech,but dropped in colloquial usage.七.ConclusionBeing the most important part, suprasegmental features can not be despised in phonology the whole passage, we can understand that suprasegmentalfeatures not only has its phonology significance, but also the practicaluse as well. We can not say this person is a good language user just by his orher vocabulary, as well as the grammar. Spoken language is also very useful. Ido hope that the paper will be sufficient to prove that suprasegmental features is an efficient way for our studies and encouragemore and more students to pay attention to using 【1】CaoJianfen. The Rhythm of Mandarin Chinese. Instituteof Linguistics of Chinese Academyof Social Science. RPR-IL/CASS (2000-2002).【2】Chen . Contrastive Study of Suprasegmental Phonology in English and Chinese: aFunctional Perspective. MA: Southwest China Normal University.【3】Chomsky,N. & Halle,M. 1968. The Sound Pattern of English. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers.
1他不拘一格的用人,对人材的使用及领导达到了极高的境遇;2他独具慧眼,看到了个人力量的不足,充分认识到君王如石、良臣如匠,方有美玉问世,对大臣的各项进步之言豁达的予以采纳;3不独断专行、初步确立了三权分立、互相监督的政治管理制度,规定法令甚至包括自己(影响国家政策的那一部份)旨意需门下省审查副署后方可生效发布,保证了政策的可行性、及时发现并纠正。杜绝了不良政策对国家及人民的违害与影响;4认识到人命至重、不可妄杀的法政政策,规定死刑需三复奏(外地五复奏)复审批准后方可行刑,这就不难认人们想起贞观四年(630)全国叛死刑才29人、贞观六年(632)全国死刑犯290人,太宗审查时令全部290人回家团年、待来年秋收后回来复刑,结果290人均准时到来、无一人逃亡。5太宗朝武功之盛,除高丽战争上没有取得战略胜利外都取得了辉煌的胜利(突厥、吐谷浑、高昌、安西四镇、漠北薛延陀等),这与当时的国力、军队战斗力、整体战略、用人选将与配合默契、过程协调一致等重要因素是分不开的,因此在中华历史上的名将名相中,贞观朝占有相当的比例,在中华军事史上,贞观朝的战例也多被引用;6气吞天下的“天可汗”气质,李世民多次以少吓多,经典之役就是在渭水单骑吓退突厥10万精骑,就对比宋真宗在寇准一在坚持和请求下才勉强在大军护卫下到达澶州南城,而又要战战兢兢的马上要回去是何等的天壤之别啊!7胸怀大局、四海一统的民族和外交政策,太宗朝的民族和外交政策取得了辉煌的胜利,四海之内只要知道中国的均努力内附,以唐为荣,乐不思蜀,他们不但同唐人一样可以自由自在的生存,还可以做官,著名的少数民族将领阿史那思摩、执思失力、契荜何力乃至后世的高仙芝、李光弼等都为唐朝做出了杰出贡献,在他们身上正好反映出李世民民族政策的光辉,现在的唐人、唐人街也正时那时繁荣富强、威甲四海、文礼之邦的生动写照;8完善科举制度、大力兴办学校、重视教育活动、普及官吏选聘、当时的国子学、太学之盛、地方也有不少学校,如此才不难想起当时的教化呢,同时当时的科举也规范化、考选公平,以进士科最为杰出,如此才有太宗见新科进士鱼贯而出,喜言“天下英雄、入朕彀夷”,唐朝的教育及科举为政治上提供优秀人才同文化精髓——唐诗及经济发展做出杰出贡献;9工书法、富文词,太宗皇帝个人修养及天赋极高,在书法同文词上也颇有名气,在他大力宏扬和鼓励支持下,才有唐代书法、文学、艺术之盛;10倡导廉政、节俭、朴素、重视农田水利,太宗朝在廉政建设方面是相当成功的,他并没有像朱元璋一样严惩贪官污吏,而是建立一个廉洁奉公、遵纪守法的中央领导班子、重视地方长官选举,当时朝廷中不少卿相家境贫困,温彦博、戴胄、于志宁、魏征、张玄素等等,再加上良好风气的宣传和行政监督,及时预防了官员犯错,因此当时的官员相当奉公守法、廉洁自律;太宗皇帝也比较注意节俭,不滥用民力、注意与民休息,当时社会形成了一种朴素求实的作风;太宗皇帝也相当重视农业,京官外巡回京太宗先问及此事,因太子冠礼与农时违背而更改;11由于社会安定,商业经济得到发展,全国新兴了许多商业城市,城市业有相当的发展,广州、杭州、扬州、成都、江陵、凉州等城市经济发展相当迅猛,长安同洛阳作为世界经济大都会就不言而喻了,这为封建经济登顶奠定了坚实的基础;12对玄奘佛学的支持同西游的肯定,打通并维护河西走廊-丝绸之路及东联新罗、日本,促进了中西文化交流与经济发展,文成公主下嫁吐蕃,使吐蕃从奴隶制社会迈入封建社会,开发并促进了西藏的发展;综上所述,唐太宗李世民不愧为我国历史上一位伟大的政治家、军事家、战略家、文学家、书法家、卓越的领袖、影响中华乃至世界进程的杰出人物,他为中华民族同人民做出了杰出贡献,留下了辉耀千古的丰功伟业及精神财富,因此受到人们的崇敬;也正如筑东阳先生所说“他是继孔子之后中国数一数二的伟人”。
自古至今,人们都想清楚的了解善与恶,好与坏的界限。中国古代的智者就曾形象的将它们表示出来,即为太极图,此图由两部分构成,一部分分为白色,另一部分为黑色,然而在白色有一部分黑色,在黑色又有一处白色。这说明善与恶,好与坏并没有绝对的界限,英雄与非英雄亦是如此。 历史上的刘邦就是一个备受争议的人,有人说他,因为他统一全国建立西汉王朝,将国家治理的井井有条,繁荣昌盛,使遭受战争之苦的百姓有了家。其实这就是我最初对刘邦的评价,我认为刘邦就是一个大英雄,一个伟大的人物,我们应该向他学习。但也有人说他坏,因为他不仁不义,为达目地不择手段,同时又是贪生怕死。就拿《鸿门宴》来说,刘邦,项羽攻秦的时候,项羽消灭了秦军主力,可刘邦技高一筹,他说服秦王子投降,使得自己先项羽进入函谷关中。这样的刘邦到底算不算英雄!这是我心中的一个大疑问。现在在我看来,刘邦算的上是一个英雄,他是一个心系百姓的英雄,是一个能屈能伸的英雄,是一个善于用人的英雄,但也是一个心机深的英雄。当然,这个英雄或许有很多优缺点。但是我们也得明白,人无完人,每个人都有自己的做事原则,我们也不能按照自己的意愿来要求别人。 正如我们不能以成败论英雄,我们也不能以片面来论一个人的好坏。善恶好坏是体现在生活中的点点滴滴的细节上的。由此可见,真正的英雄是有着复杂的内心世界,英雄如山是可望不可及的!
功:1.秦始皇采用“远交近攻、各个击破”的战略方针,灭六国,拓展疆域,统一全国,结束了春秋战国以来长期分裂战乱的局面,有利于人民生活安定和社会生产的发展;派蒙恬率兵出击匈奴,把战国时秦、赵、燕三国北边的长城连结起来,修筑西起临洮(今甘肃岷县)东至辽东的万里长城,有力地抵御了匈奴的进攻,在征服百越地区后,设置桂林、象郡、南海等郡。开创了幅员辽阔的秦帝国,促进了各民族的融合与团结,推动了中国多元一体化格局的形成。2.统一后,采取一系列改革措施,促进了中国政治、经济、文化的统一和发展。(1)政治上:建立了中国第一个统一的多民族的中央集权国家。中央设三公九卿,丞相、御史大夫、太尉,称为“三公”,“三公”下设九卿。在地方废分封,实行郡县制,将全国分为36郡,每一个郡有守、尉和监各一,郡下设县。主要官吏均由皇帝直接任免,绝对服从和执行皇帝的命令。(2)经济上:在全国统一使用圆形方孔钱,又称秦半两钱;同时,统一了度、量、衡。为发展全国陆路交通,实行“车同轨”,修建驰道和直道;开凿沟通湘江和漓江的灵渠,在西南地区修筑了“五尺道”。(3)在文化方面:统一文字,以秦国通行的文字为基础制定小篆,颁行全国。这些措施,有利于巩固秦朝的统一,有利于各地经济文化交流和发展,对后世也有深远影响。过:1.征敛无度,赋税奇重。为了维持庞大的军费开支与工程建设,满足穷奢极欲之生活,秦始皇不惜对民众课以重税,全国出现“男子力耕,不足粮饷,女子纺织,不足衣服,竭天下之资财以奉其政”的严重状况,以致民不聊生,百姓“衣牛马之衣,食犬口之食”。2.好大喜功,滥用民力。秦始皇急功近利、不恤民情,连年大兴土木、四处征战,为了自己之奢欲,在首都附近造阿房宫、修骊山墓,所耗民夫竟多达70万人以上。据估计,当时服兵役之人数远超200万,占壮年男子三分之一以上。如此重税苦役,实非百姓所能忍受。3.严刑峻法,民怨鼎沸。秦自商鞅变法以来,法令十分严苛,一人死罪诛及三族,一家犯法邻里连坐,百姓动辄被罚充苦役或惨遭酷刑。4.箝制思想,焚书坑儒。为防止百姓反抗,秦始皇采纳李斯建议在思想上实行了严厉的政策——“焚书坑儒”。“焚书”是指除秦朝中央收藏的书籍、秦国史书和医药、卜筮、种树之书以外全部焚烧,对违抗命令的人一律处死。全国百姓和士人敢有私藏经书和诸子百家典籍者被处以灭族的酷刑。后又坑杀非议朝政的儒生四百余人。“焚书坑儒”有利于巩固国家的统一;但这种文化专制主义,毁灭了大批文化典籍,极大地摧残了中国文化,钳制了人们的思想,是秦朝暴政的集中体现。总体评价:秦始皇在中国建立起第一个统一的多民族的专制主义中央集权的封建国家,在我国历史发展长河中,树立起一块新的里程碑,其非凡的功绩在中国帝王中也只有极少数人能与之相比,无愧为后人所说的“千古一帝”。但是,秦始皇又是一位暴君,他横征暴敛,农民不仅上交收获物的三分之二,还要负担沉重的徭役,被征去修筑阿房宫、陵墓、长城的达200多万人。秦始皇的暴政,最终导致二世而亡,其中的历史教训足以警世后人,引以为鉴。总的来说,秦始皇功大于过。
如果他不去争,就只能屈居人下,甚至被人杀死,对他个人而言是壮志难酬,对大唐王朝发展而言则有可能是不可估量的损失。历史作业 ———————— 唐太宗任用贤能,从善如流,闻过即改,视民如子,不分华夷,开创“贞观之治”,是中国人千年称颂的好皇帝。 识时务者为俊杰,唐太宗就是一位识时务的俊杰!18岁的李世民就已察觉到天下可为,并坚定了其父起兵的决心。后来,本朝的经验和前朝的教训对于年轻气盛的李世民转变观念影响很大,那就是不能完全靠武力征服天下!唐太宗即位后就宣布说:“朕虽以武功定天下,终当以文德绥海内。文武之道,各随其时。”这确是识时务的看法! 唐太宗之所以能实现自己的雄心壮志是因为发动了玄武门之变。虽然李建成并非像有些史书上记载的那样平庸、禄禄无为,他也很有才华。有人说,如果他当了皇帝,也会把唐朝治理得很好,李世民过于狠毒,杀戮亲兄弟有损他一代明君的形象。 但,再伟大的君主身后也会有白骨累累。李建成确实有才华,但跟李世民比要逊色得多。李世民发动玄武门之变纯属封建社会时期皇族内部的夺权斗争。在那个立嫡以长不以贤的时代,宫廷政变司空见惯,那是一场鱼死网破的政治斗争。如果他不去争,就只能屈居人下,甚至被人杀死,对他个人而言是壮志难酬,对大唐王朝发展而言则有可能是不可估量的损失。 且评说一个历史人物应看他是否为历史发展做出了贡献。唐太宗为唐朝的建立及统一立下了赫赫战功,比他的兄长李建成更有远见卓识。唐太宗即位后,吸取隋朝灭亡的教训,轻徭薄赋、戒奢从简、善用人才,连魏征这样曾经的政敌,他都不计前嫌予以重用,这是何等的气量与胸怀!而正是有像魏征这样的众多人才的辅佐,才有了初唐的气象万千。李建成会有这样的远见与胸怀吗?所以,在我心目中,玄武门之变无损于他的英明形象。 唐太宗的明君形象深入百姓心中,借“君者舟也,人者水也;水能载舟,亦能覆舟!”用以对人民的力量表示敬畏,约束自己的行为,对当今社会的领导人仍起很大作用。 唐宋以后的皇帝制度尽管仍然在继续发展,但遗憾的是,它的发展和完善都是注重于如何控制臣下的方面,不是如何约束皇帝的一面!从宋太祖到明太祖,乃至清朝的康雍乾诸帝,无不在驾驭之术上处心积虑,而不愿在皇帝自我约束上动心思。相反,一部《贞观政要》的君臣论治,重心不是如何驾驭臣下,而是如何约束皇帝,如何进谏纳谏! 这正是唐太宗高明之处,是唐太宗超迈古今帝王成为千古一帝的原因所在,也是唐太宗留给后人的一份政治遗产。
大学过去常常被许多人称作‘象牙塔’,是与真实的世界隔开的。其实则不然,大学依然逃不过世俗的忧虑。”我眼中的大学生活的英语作文主要介绍了普通大学生门对大学生活的感想The first day of my university Look! There is a rainbow! On the first day of my university life, when I walked into the campus, there was a rainbow bridging over the fountain, I hadn’t seen rainbow for a long time. I was so excited, and leaped high with joy. My ponytail danced with my happiness. It was a propitious sign indicated that my life in university would be colorful, and actually it is! After my entry into university, I found my life so busy. What I should do is not only gaining the scholarship but also being a good monitor and leader of shanghai university percussion passes 'm 24, six years primary,three years middle school,three years high school,three years specialist and two years undergraduate,finally,I have finished my student is a long time,during these years,I laughted,cried,cheered and is full of variety now,I should be independent,notonly on economies,but also on thoughts. From our birth,we are rushing to that,one day,you were old enough to go to the t can you take with?The answer is:NOTING!Should we give up our live for this reason?No,we should live as happy as we parents must be are not young give us should cherish at Come on!Man!With our hands,we can live a happy life.
College life values Life values refers to people on the fundamental views on life values and attitudes, namely people for life goal, life value orientation and the life value and the ultimate way of understanding attitude. Values for each person is indispensable and important, of course, including college students. Moreover, values to our college students also have very special contemporary undergraduate is in facing life development is the key period. Time request we want in learning to live aspects omni-directional face and thinking how to correctly handle the relationship between individual and society and so on a series of major issues. We want to learn survival skills, learning potential, learn to creation and innovation, learn to sacrifice, these are our future faces the society must have the most fundamental and most important quality. Among them, I think the most core is to learn how to behave, learn to do a line with the country prosperous and social progress development need personality healthy people, Learn to do a to correctly handle the agreement between man and man, man and society, the relation between man and nature and enable the coordinated development of the person, Do a ideals, ethics, people noble. The word, and make a beneficial to society, favorable to the people, be helpful for country. This requires us students must start from now, sets up the correct should foster the noble values. Establish positive, optimistic upward, generous, self-improvement attitude towards life. The correct way to face the modern economic and social impact. Have a bit inadvertent, will deviate from moral and breaking value. For example, the newspaper has been reported, XXX university students will parents sweat the money than blessed with others, all dressed in designer clothing, when money apending after another notice send money, completely family regardless of her parents' hardship, also ignore money ever came to be. He felt that money is a kind of glory, just wearing a famous brand will not be looked down upon by others, actually this is a rotten ideas.
其实网上发不了这么多。你干脆去买一本“疯狂英语 阅读版”。现在应该是6元一本。里面有散文,小说,话题文章,诗歌,议论的,新闻类型的。反正有许多的。还带有翻译。有些还附带MP3格式。你买那个不错的!
How to learn English well a few proposal Want to learn English well, first of all to foster interest in english. " Interest is the best teacher". Interest is great motivation to learn English, with interest, the study will be multiplied. We have such experience: like thing, it will be easier to do so; don't like something, it is difficult to keep the. And interest are not born with, need to cultivate. Some students said:" I saw the English headache, how to cultivate the interest in English?" Work is a necessary condition of learning English, have a solid foundation in English, it would not continue to learn, not to mention the achievement. To a solid basic skills, must be absorbed in to listen to the teacher carefully, listen carefully in each class, improve the efficiency of the classroom, stand on solid ground, work steadily, do the following" five to": First, "heart". In the classroom should concentrate one's attention on, momently also cannot laches, the brain must always remain positive, thinking active, thinking should be widened, with the hearts of teacher, understand every word, every link, understand each knowledge spot, many associate, think more, do appreciate sb.'s thought. Two," hand to". To learn English, must take notes in class. Because the human memory is limited, people could not have gifted with an extraordinary retentive memory, memory itself is constantly struggle against forgetting process. As the saying goes," the worst pen is better than a good mind". The teacher 's knowledge may be remembered in the classroom, but over a period of time, you will forget, so, it is necessary to take good notes. English knowledge is accumulated little by little, and learned every word, phrase and sentence structure, all in a notebook, or even a Book blank or between the lines, this right after the review to consolidate all is very convenient. Three," ear to". In the classroom, listening is very necessary, not only to listen to the teacher on the explanation of knowledge, but also to listen to the teacher speak English pronunciation, intonation, stress, liaison, losing blasting, punctuate and essentials of pronunciation, in order to develop their own authentic spoken english. Hear to understand what the teacher taught each knowledge point, in the mind of formative feedback to help memory; understand the teacher's questions, so that the prompt reply, in contrast to students to answer the questions, to deepen our understanding of the problem and take the length of others make up their own short. Four," eye to". In the listening at the same time, also followed the teacher teacher action observation of eyes, mouth, expression, writing, drawing, realia display. The brain forms the visual information and auditory information is combined, can be more profound impression. Five," export to". Learning a language, does not open mouth does not talk is bad science, schoolmates the biggest problem is reading silently, shy mouth. Especially the morning reading class, students just to see or read, so that only the visual information, and no auditory feedback information in the brain, of course, memory is not too deep, the mouth muscles are not to exercise, it will be difficult to develop a pure english. Therefore, to take full advantage of the morning awake time, read aloud; classroom to Yong Yue teacher to answer questions, actively participate in class discussion and debate, class of uncertain problems, to overcome shyness, bu. On the learned text to read, read, read, can read after the tape recorder, trying to imitate the pronunciation and intonation to correct pronunciation, to read some of the classic article GetWord speak in measured tones, best can back off claws overripe. Use every possible opportunity, practice spoken English, for example, foreign exchange, and participated in the activity of "English corner", talk with your classmates, telling English stories, singing English songs, play in English, poetry readings. In addition to the book of essays to read reading, but also more suitable for our students extra-curricular reading, not only can increase knowledge, but also broaden our vision, but also improve the level of our reading. I In short, if you are happy, enthusiastic, effectively to learn English, perhaps you will become a English celebrity!
1 Department of Community Medicine, University of Hong Kong, 21 Sassoon Road, Pokfulam, Hong Kong, China,2 Department of Health, Student Health Service, 4/F Lam Tin Polyclinic, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China,3 Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX2 6HE Introduction Passive smoking can cause death from lung cancer and coronary heart disease, but there is little evidence for associations with other causes of death in never smokers. A recent study showed increased all cause mortality with exposure to secondhand smoke at home but did not examine associations with specific causes of death and dose-response We have published estimates of the mortality attributable to active smoking in Hong Kong2 and now present the related findings on passive smoking at home. Participants, methods, and results Details of the sample selection and data collection have been Each person who reported a death in 1998 at four death registries was given a questionnaire which asked about the lifestyle 10 years earlier of the decedent and of a living person about the same age who was well known to the informant. Passive smoking was identified in the interview with the question, "Ten years ago, in about 1988, excluding the decedent/control, how many persons who lived with the decedent/control smoked" Decedents or controls who lived with one or more smokers were classed as exposed. Cause of death was obtained from the death certificate. We selected never smoking decedents and controls aged 60 years or over because there were few younger controls. To avoid selection bias, we included only cases and controls who had a living spouse at the time of reporting. We used logistic regression to derive odds ratios adjusted for age and education, and for sex when men and women were combined. What is known on this topic There is strong evidence that passive smoking is causally associated with death from lung cancer, coronary heart disease, and all causes, and also with acute stroke What this study adds The dose-response relation between passive smoking and mortality from stroke and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, as well as from lung cancer, ischaemic heart disease, and all causes of death, strengthens the causal link We identified 4838 never smoking cases (55% male) and 763 never smoking controls (55% male). All controls were used in the analysis for each specific cause of death. We found significant dose dependent associations between passive smoking and mortality from lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, stroke, ischaemic heart disease, and from all cancers, all respiratory and circulatory diseases, and all causes (table). The association between mortality and passive smoking did not differ between males and females. Deaths due to injury or poisoning were not associated with passive smoking. Number of subjects who were or were not exposed to secondhand smoke at home and odds ratios (adjusted for age and education, and for sex when men and women were combined) for mortality in people aged 60 or over, Hong Kong. Values are odds ratio (95% confidence interval) unless indicated otherwise Comment Dose dependent associations between passive smoking and causes of death are consistent with previous findings for lung cancer and coronary heart disease and extend the evidence on stroke. Previous studies have shown associations between passive smoking and first acute strokes,3 4 and we have now shown a dose-response relation with mortality from stroke. Previous studies focused on ischaemic strokes but Chinese populations have a greater incidence of haemorrhagic stroke than do white populations,5 implying that many of the strokes in our study may have been non-ischaemic. Passive smoking probably affects all stroke subtypes, as does active smoking. Our finding of a 34% increase in all cause mortality is consistent with but higher than that (15%) in the New Zealand Exposure to secondhand smoke at home is higher in Hong Kong than in New Zealand due to crowded living conditions. Before the 1990s, awareness of the danger of passive smoking was lower and smokers smoked freely at home. We focused on passive smoking at home because the proxy reporter could most reliably supply these data, and we adjusted for education, which was also reliably recorded2 and is a good proxy for social class in Hong Kong. As data on cases and controls were derived from the same proxy, reporting bias should be If our results are not due to residual confounding, they provide further evidence that the dose-response associations between passive smoking and stroke and all cause mortality are likely to be causal. See Editorial by Kawachi This article was posted on on 27 January 2005: We thank W L Cheung for help with analysis; the Immigration Department of the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region for data and assistance; and, in particular, the relatives who provided information. Contributors: THL, SYH, AJH, KHM, and RP designed and carried out the study on which this analysis was based; SMcG, MS, LMH, and GNT planned and carried out this analysis; and all authors contributed to writing the paper. SMcG and THL are guarantors. Funding: Hong Kong Health Services Research Committee (#631012) and Hong Kong Council on Smoking and Health. Competing interests: THL is vice chairman and AJH a former chairman of the Hong Kong Council on Smoking and Health. Ethical approval: Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Medicine, University of Hong Kong. References Hill SE, Blakely TA, Kawachi I, Woodward A. Mortality among never smokers living with smokers: two cohort studies, 1981-4 and 1996-9. BMJ 2004;328: 988-9. Lam TH, Ho SY, Hedley AJ, Mak KH, Peto R. Mortality and smoking in Hong Kong: case-control study of all adult deaths in 1998. BMJ 2001;323: 361-2. Bonita R, Duncan J, Truelson T, Jackson RT, Beaglehole R. Passive smoking as well as active smoking increases the risk of acute stroke. Tobacco Control 1999;8: 156-60. Iribarren C, Darbinian J, Klatsky AL, Friedman GD. Cohort study of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and risk of first ischemic stroke and transient ischemic attack. Neuroepidemiology 2004;23: 38-44. Kay R, Woo J, Kreel L, Wong HY, Teoh R, Nicholls MG. Stroke subtypes among Chinese living in Hong Kong: the Shatin stroke registry. Neurology 1992;42: 985-7.
If the Dream is Big EnoughI used to watch her from mykitchenwindow, she seemed so small as she 1)muscled her way throughthecrowd of boys on the playground. The school was across thestreetfrom our home and I would often watch the kids as theyplayedduring recess. A sea of children, and yet to me, she stoodout fromthem remr the first day I saw her playing in wonder as she ran circles around the other to shoot jump shots just over their heads and into boys always tried to stop her but no one begantonotice her at other times, basketball in hand, playing practice 2)dribbling and shooting over and overagain,sometimes until dark. One day I asked her why she practicedsomuch. She looked directly in my eyes and without a momentofhesitation she said, “I want to go to college. The only way Icango is if I get a scholarship. I like basketball. I decided thatifI were good enough, I would get a scholarship. I am going toplaycollege basketball. I want to be the best. My Daddy told me ifthedream is big enough, the facts don’t count.” Then she smiledandran towards the court to 3)recap the routine I had seen overandover , I had to give it to her—she was her through those junior high years and into week, she led her 4)varsity team to day inhersenior year, I saw her sitting in the grass, head cradled inherarms. I walked across the street and sat down in the coolgrassbeside her. Quietly I asked what was wrong. “Oh, nothing,”came asoft reply. “I am just too short.” The coach told her that at5’5”she would probably never get to play for a top ranked team—muchless offered a scholarship—so she should stop was heartbroken and I felt my own throat tightenas Isensed her disappointment. I asked her if she had talked to herdadabout it lifted her head from her hands and told methather father said those coaches were wrong. They just didnotunderstand the power of a dream. He told her that if shereallywanted to play for a good college, if she truly wantedascholarship, that nothing could stop her except one thing — herownattitude. He told her again, “If the dream is big enough, thefactsdon’t count.”The next year, as she and her team went totheNorthern California Championship game, she was seen by acollege5)recruiter. She was indeed offered a scholarship, a fullride, toa Division I, 6)NCAA women’s basketball team. She was goingto getthe college education that she had dreamed of and workedtoward forall those ’s true: If the dream is big enough,the factsdon’t count. 我以前常常从厨房的窗户看到她穿梭于操场上的一群男孩子中间,她显得那么矮小。 学校在我家的街对面,我可以经常看到孩子们在下课时间打球。尽管有一大群的孩子,但我觉得她跟其他的孩子截然不同。 我记得第一天看到她打篮球的情景。看着她在其他孩子旁边兜来转去,我感到十分惊奇。她总是尽力地跳起投篮,球恰好越过那些孩子的头顶飞入篮筐。那些男孩总是拼命地阻止她,但没有人可以做得到。 我开始注意到她有时候一个人打球。她一遍遍地练习运球和投篮,有时直到天黑。有一天我问她为什么这么刻苦地练习。她直视着我的眼睛,不加思索地说:“我想上大学。只有获得奖学金我才能上大学。我喜欢打篮球,我想只要我打得好,我就能获得奖学金。我要到大学去打篮球。我想成为最棒的球员。我爸爸告诉我说,心中有目标,风雨不折腰。”说完她笑了笑,跑向篮球场,又开始我之前见过的一遍又一遍的练习。 嘿,我服了她了——她是下定了决心了。我看着她这些年从初中升到高中。每个星期,她带领的学校篮球代表队都能够获胜。 高中那会儿的某一天,我看见她坐在草地上,头埋在臂弯里。我穿过街道,坐到她旁边的清凉的草地上。我轻轻地问出什么事了。“哦,没什么,”她轻声回答,“只是我太矮了。”原来篮球教练告诉她,以五英尺五英寸的身材,她几乎是没有机会到一流的球队去打球的——更不用说会获得奖学金了——所以她应该放弃想上大学的梦想。 她很伤心,我也觉得自己的喉咙发紧,因为我感觉到了她的失望。我问她是否与她的爸爸谈过这件事。 她从臂弯里抬起头,告诉我,她爸爸说那些教练错了。他们根本不懂得梦想的力量。他告诉她,如果真的想到一个好的大学去打篮球,如果她真的想获得奖学金,任何东西也不能阻止她,除非她自己不愿意。他又一次跟她说:“心中有目标,风雨不折腰。” 第二年,当她和她的球队去参加北加利福尼亚州冠军赛时,她被一位大学的招生人员看中了。她真的获得了奖学金,一个全面资助的奖学金,并且进入美国全国大学体育协会其中一队女子甲组篮球队。她将接受她曾梦想并为之奋斗多年的大学教育。 是的,心中有目标,风雨不折腰。
There have seed emotion to call "like", the second is called "love". Love is when he is in in eyes, he is the only one; When he is not in all with his shadow. Love is in the middle of the night when reading a book about him suddenly, imagine him what to do now, in the heart of the warm light up a bulky, but never actively give him a call. A few minutes later, the attention again to plot of the book to attract!!!!! Love is in the lonely night, miss flooded to holding the book in his hand, but how also can't go in, you heart at this time whether he still in overtime, and eat dinner, is not as we think of his general thinking about himself. Like is to discuss with him the blush up to the ears, for before him at his rival like a hedgehog never give up, but as in the heart had secretly admire his opinions of his talent. Love is the hope that he and his whip, and his soul dwelling, he inadvertently say a teaser also can let himself down even for tears. In front of him, he is never fortification. Like is out to his hair message, tell him the weather here is very good, and then the phone off, alone in different ground crazy for a week, sun into a black suddenly appeared in front of him after startled him. Love is whether to which all hope to have his company. Can be standing on the beach to give him a mobile phone, let him to hear the sound of the waves; Can also because of the foreign street see a strongly resembles his figure and leng in situ billowing move. Like he is before the trip simple way with a "bon voyage", looking at his leave of figure, in the heart a little shed, but say nothing, just silently waiting for him to return news. Love is in his QianDingNing before the trip into his backpack, charged with clothes and food, at the station to wait until the train left before they would leave. And after he left in the day of every day in limbo, over and pray that he can come back safely. Like is in hurt, don't want to let him see his weak side, before him quietly wipe the tears, turned his head still is a happy strong shape. Love is in be wronged, on his chest and wept bitterly, no disguise no worries, put all the troubles completely, and the desire to tell him from his arms get comfort. Like is and his weekend shops tired eat together KFC; Is in the cold winter and he grabbed a hot cup of coffee; And he is always walk on the street shoulder among the distance between the half a metre; With him together in front of the computer game play two smile like a child. Love is weekend use half a day to make a few with sir meet of see him to eat it, Is in the cold winter for his coffee cup constantly refilled hot water; And he walked in the street is letting him walking arm in arm with his own hand tightly; Is next to him in the quiet, happy to look at him in front of the computer work to look. Like is to hear him tell his childhood the fun, and then laughed, in the heart of the fellowship of the vague feeling. Love is to listen to his childhood the fun, then smiled, heart more pity at present this once so terribly naughty man. Love is in the building, pleasant and met him he say hello, again simple greetings several, pass by when she saw a beautiful sunshine outside the window, the mood gratuitous and better. Love is in the building and see him, face pretends to did not care about the expression, but passed careful around feeling in the attack of air, and could not help looking back to one eye. Like is to see him and another girl hand through inside, there is a little bit of pain, but will soon at chaoyang to raise smiling face. Love is a loser's game, after paying all, stay may be only on the bottom of a scar. Like a person is want him was his own, so, can be like a lot of people, want to a lot of people is their own. Love is clearly without him, but will have to give up him, because he will happiness, maybe I can not give. Can't take him, would like to see him find happiness, even of that happiness is not share with me. Like that are expected to feel lonely, bored, sad, to find someone to talk to. Love is, at any time to share with him, happy even hopes to put all his happiness. Love is a long, long time, didn't contact, received his phone, and then smile to hear him speak. Love is in a few days, had no contact, try so hard to call him, then held my tears and smile a little. Like, only together of the time, just thinking about each other. Love is, even if it is together, each second is thinking about him. Like a person, most many friends, will also feel happy. Love a person, is more a person, can enjoy two people of the world. Like a person, is sweet greasy. Love a person, is the sunshine. Like a person, together of the time will be very happy. Love a person, not together, will sense of loss. Like a person, you won't think of your future. Love a person, you often together hope for tomorrow. Like a person, together of the time is always a joy. Love a person, you will often tears. Like a person, when you long time no see, you will suddenly think of him. Love a person, when you long time no see, you will think about him every day. Like a person, when you think of him, and you will be a slight smile. Love a person, when you think of him, and you will be the stunned. Like a person, you will want to have children, he you will love it. Love a person, will one day, you suddenly very curious: the future of our children can be any appearance. Like a person is hope everybody happy. Love a person hope that he will be more happy. Like a person, you only need today. Love a person, you expect is forever. Like a person, is to see the advantages. Love a person, is inclusive of his faults. When you stand in front of the person you love, your heart beats faster. But when you stood in front of the person you like, you just feel happy. When you and the person you love, you four eyes delivers will shy. But when you and four eyes of the person you like, you can only smile delivers. When you and the person you love, you feel is reluctant to dialogue. But when you and of the person you like, you can speak freely. Dialogue When the one you love is crying, you cry with her. But when the one you like is crying, you will skills to comfort her. When you don't want to love a person, you want to close your eyes and endure tears. When you don't
在纷繁杂乱的论文文献海洋里,每一篇论文都有其格式。我整理了500字论文及其格式,有兴趣的亲可以来阅读一下! 本科 毕业 论文格式 封面 使用学校统一格式,题目居中,学号等内容靠左侧对齐,后面的下画线要整齐。。题目要对论文(设计)的内容有高度的概括性,简明、易读,字数应在20以内。 中文论文题目 论文题目 黑体三号,居中。下面空一行。 中文摘要 “摘要:“顶头,黑体四号,后面内容采用宋体小四号,摘要应简要说明毕业论文(设计)所研究的内容、目的、实验 方法 、主要成果和特色,一般为150-300字。下面空一行 中文关键词 “关键词:“顶头,黑体四号,后面内容采用宋体小四号,关键词一般3-5个,以”,“号隔开,最后一个关键词尾不加标点符号,下面空两行。 英文论文题目 所有英文采用“Times New roman”字体,黑体三号,加粗,居中。下面空一行。 英文摘要和关键词 英文摘要和关键词除字体外同中文摘要和关键词的格式要求,但“Abstract:”和“Key words:”要加粗。内容翻译要准确,英文摘要的词汇和语法必须准确。 注意:如果内容教多,可以将英文题目、摘要、关键词放到下页。 目录 “目录”两字为黑体3号,居中,下面空一行。 第一层次标题“一、”顶头,黑体、小四号,第二层次缩进一字,宋体,小四号,第三层次再缩进一字,宋体,小四号……,页码加小括号,页码前为连续的点,垂直居中。 如果采用“1”、“1、1”、“1、1、1”的形式,则每层缩进半字。 参考文献按第一层次标题的格式。 正文 正文采用宋体,小四号,每段开头空两字,要符合一般学术论文的写作规范,文理科毕业论文字数一般不少于6000字,工科、艺术类专业毕业设计字数视专业情况而定。 论文应文字流畅,语言准确,层次清晰,论点清楚,论据准确,论证完整、严密,有独立的观点和见解,应具备学术性、科学性和一定的创新性。 毕业论文内容要实事求是,尊重知识产权,凡引用他人的观点、统计数据或计算公式的要有出处(引注),计算的数据要求真实、客观、准确。 标题 所有标题左侧空两字,数字标题从大到小的顺序写法应为:“一、”,“(一)”,“1、”,“(1)”,“” 的形式,黑体,小四号,左侧空两字,或者采用“1”、“1、1”、“1、1、1”……的形式,黑体,小四号,左侧顶格。 注释 采用本学科学术规范,提倡实用脚注,论文所有引用的中外文资料都要注明出处。中外文注释要注明所用资料的原文版作者、书名、出版商、出版年月、页码。 图表 正文中出现图表时,调整行距至所需大小,返回正文再将行距调整为22磅。 参考文献 参考文献按在正文中出现的先后次序列表于文后;文后以“参考文献:”(左顶格)为标识;参考文献的序号左顶格,并用数字加方括号表示,如[1]、[2]、…,以与正文中的指示序号格式一致。参照ISO690及ISO690-2,每一参考文献条目的最后均以“、”结束。各类参考文献条目的编排格式及示例如下: 专著、论文集、学位论文、 报告 [序号]主要责任者、文献题名[文献类型标识]、出版地:出版者,出版年、起止页码(任选)、(中译本前要加国别) [1] [英]M奥康诺尔著,王耀先译.科技书刊的编译工作[M]、北京:人民 教育 出版社,1982、56-57、 [2] 辛希孟、信息技术与信息服务国际研讨会论文集:A集[C]、北京:中国社会科学出版社,1994、 打印及纸张 本科生毕业论文(设计)应一律采用打印的形式,使用A4规格的纸张,左边距2、75cm,右边距及上下边距2、5cm,页眉页脚1、5cm,全文行距22磅,装订线在左侧。按以下介绍的次序依次编排,页号打在页下方,宋体五号,居中。 装订次序 学生答辩后各院系要将有关资料和论文按照封面、中英文内容摘要及关键词、目录、正文、注释、参考文献、选题审批表、开题报告、中期检查表、指导教师评语、答辩记录表的顺序统一装订成册,存入院系教学档案。 提交论文电子稿 学生上交的毕业论文(设计)软盘一定要经过杀毒处理! 毕业论文(设计)应用Microsoft Word编辑,存成以学号为名的、doc文件,例如一个学生的学号为0137023,则文件名应该为0137023、doc。每个学生交上来的磁盘中只能有一个名为学号、doc的文件,对于双修的学生,应上交两篇论文,其中一篇名为学号、doc,另一篇名为学号sh、doc,如 0137023sh、doc(双修专业)。 原则上,每个学生应将自己的论文单独存盘(存为一个文件名),并在软盘封面写明自己的学号、姓名、所属院系,然后上交。不提倡为了将多个学生的论文挤在一张软盘上而将各个文件压缩的做法。如果软盘的空间足够大,也可以集中多个学生的论文文件,但决不能是压缩文件。如果某个学生的论文过大,不得不进行压缩,那么必须将自己所用的压缩、解压软件及解压方法详细记录在一个名为decompress的、doc或、txt文件中;如果所用的解压软件不常见,应该在软盘中附带自己的解压软件。500字小论文 早晨,阳光透过我房间的纱窗和玻璃懒洋洋地撒在我脸上,让我从甜蜜梦乡中醒来。这时,妈妈推开我房间的木门告诉我今天的行程:今天我们一家四口和小姨、舅舅还有徐豪一起去雅林玩。 听了之后,我的脸上浮现出来开心的笑容。 经过漫长的“坐车之行”,我们终于到达了虞美人(花名)之乡——雅林。走入大门,五颜六色的虞美人衬在绿油油的草地上十分显眼!在那一刹那,我昏昏的感觉一下子消失了,新鲜空气中漂浮着悠悠香气,这气味闻着让人心里真舒坦。 在木头城里,独木桩和独木块最受大家的欢迎,无论什么时候,游客都排着长长的队伍。终于轮到我了!“呀!”我在独木桩上颤抖地说,这时木桩在晃动,差点让我摔了一个大跟头。走过独木桩,我发现自己的手被独木桩的缰绳搞得通红,犹如刚接触过血一番。而我却并没有因为手的发红而放弃‘过关’:我在独木板的那队排队,看着前面的叔叔阿姨过独木板时的紧张,我感受到了“危险”,抱着忐忑不安的心,我也走上了独木板,两个相邻的木板时不时的相撞,大家的脚一会儿碰在一起,一会儿分开,有点像荡秋千呢!踏过独木板和独木桩让我意识到了:坚持不懈,就一定可以成功!我在木头城玩耍,虽然弄的满头是汗,但是很开心。 之后,我们去热带林游玩,里面有着我们这里没有的植物。 转眼间,两个小时过去了我们便坐着舅舅的车回家了。看了“500字论文及其格式”的人还看: 1. 500字论文格式 2. 500字论文怎么写 3. 毕业论文范文 4. 1000字左右论文格式 5. 本科毕业论文格式要求
一、封面1、题目:小二号黑体加粗居中。2、各项内容:四号宋体居中。二、目录1、目录:二号黑体加粗居中。2、章节条目:五号宋体。3、行距:单倍行距。三、论文题目:小一号黑体加粗居中。四、中文摘要1、摘要:小二号黑体加粗居中。2、摘要内容字体:小四号宋体。3、字数:300字左右。4、行距:28磅5、关键词:四号宋体,加粗。词3-5个,每个词间空一格。五、英文摘要1、ABSTRACT:小二号、内容字体:小四号、单倍行距。4、Keywords:四号加粗。词3-5个,小四号TimesNewRoman.词间空一格。六、绪论小二号黑体加粗居中。内容500字左右,小四号宋体,行距:28磅七、章、节、一.二.三.四、五级标题序号字体格式章:标题小二号黑体加粗居中。节:标题小三号黑体加粗居中。一、一级标题序号标题四号黑体加粗,顶格。(一)二级标题序号标题小四号宋体,不加粗顶格。1.三级标题序号标题小四号宋体,不加粗,缩进二个字。(1)四级标题序号标题小四号宋体,不加粗,缩进二个字。①五级标题序号标题小四号宋体,不加粗,缩进二个字。八、结束语小二号黑体加粗居中。内容300字左右,小四号宋体,行距:28磅。九、致谢小二号黑体加粗居中。内容小四号宋体,行距:28磅十、参考文献小二号黑体加粗居中。内容8—10篇,五号宋体,行距:28磅。十一、附录小二号黑体加粗居中。英文内容小四号TimesNewRoman.单倍行距。翻译成中文字数不少于800字内容五号宋体,行距:28磅。十二、提示【页边距设置】上,下,左,右。【页码制作】视图页眉页脚自动图标集选中第X页共Y页。【28磅设置】格式段落行距固定值设置值输入28磅文字。外国文学论文范文赏析:外国文学课程应用型改革的必然性一、应用型人才培养是教学改革的必然选择教育服务于时代,教学制约于环境。自上世纪90年代高校开始扩招到本世纪初毛入学率达到20%,我国高等教育已完成了由传统精英教育向现代大众教育的转化。在这个过程中,一批以专科院校合并升格方式组建而成的地方性本科院校应运而生。在世纪前后持续扩招的10年里,这些新建地方院校与老牌院校一起,共同承担了消化新中国建立后第二个人口生育高峰(上世纪80年代)蕴积的高等教育重任和完成大众化阶段高等教育任务的社会责任。在持续满负荷甚至超负荷运转中,他们对自身地位处境、办学目标方向、发展出路等问题未及进行准确定位思考,事实上高速发展的大众教育形势也不容思考。只需例行一年一度“打开门”,以“坐以待客”的招生方式,就有源源不断的生源和疲于应付的工作任务。办学思路、模式无需创建和开拓,只需延续精英教育阶段“全国一盘棋”万众一心建设综合性大学的老路。在发展历史短底子薄、地方投入不足办学条件差、地域封闭学缘校缘联系欠佳等不利因素下,殚精竭虑、不遗余力地追求学术型大学建设目标。客观地说,在此宏大目标下,这些院校做出了不同寻常的努力,使办学环境、条件得到了极大改善。自身获得了长足发展,也为我国高等教育事业做出了巨大贡献。但不可回避的是,诸多现实问题也随之产生,且日渐凸显,成为当前及今后一个时期困扰地方院校、困扰全社会,以至制约我国大众高等教育持续健康发展的巨大障碍。存在的主要问题是,地方院校是在办学条件有限、生源质量较差情况下,走与老牌综合大学同样的学术精英人才培养之路,现实与理想的差距,使教育活动收效甚微。教学中,一方面是受各种条件制约的教师在相对封闭的环境下,多年不变地守着同一个培养计划同一个大纲,竭尽所能地讲授系统的专业理论知识,另一方面是应试教育驯化出来的课外书籍基本不看、学习基本被牵着鼻子转的学生,在高校大信息量、满堂灌的课堂上难以适应和疲于应付。应试教育阶段,学生缺乏必要的阅读和社会参与,导致常识性科学文化知识和社会经验阅历积累不足。加之地方院校低分录取的学生知识功底较弱的特殊问题,使以系统理论知识传授为指针的教学活动困难重重。学生对大容量高密度的知识传授难于消化和理解,与教师之间难以形成“反馈”与“互动”的良好关系。于是教师全情投入的教学就成了单边进行无人喝彩的独角戏,难以收到良好的效果。第二个突出问题是,传统教学模式方法、内容体系及教育教学管理体制,已不能适应变化了的校情学情,造成教学和教育质量同时滑坡。一方面是在校生人数激增,给日常教学带来种种困难。人数激增,班型扩大,使课堂教学秩序难以把握,教学形式更趋于易于操作的满堂灌和一言堂,而以小班为易,曾经作为传统教学补充的研讨式、探析式、参与式教学难以坚持。另一方面是人数激增,使以拓展课堂教学和提高学生知识应用能力、综合能力的第二课堂活动难以开展。人数激增,并列班级增加,教学场所紧张。教室流动使用,学生走班,学生学习及活动最基本的组织单位———班级名存实亡,使第二课堂以及其它增强学生团队意识、提升学生文化素养和参与能力的校园文化活动难于组织。在这两大问题之下,最终检验学校教育成效和学生知识能力水平的毕业生的两大出口———考研和就业,均出现困局。重在理论知识传授的传统教学,目标是培养理论功底扎实有学术水平的高层次人才。但如此教育之下的毕业生,首先在专业知识检验的第一道关口毕业论文(设计)中,常常照抄照搬甚至“满纸荒唐言”。之后在被看作专业知识水平终极检验的考研中,整体成绩也不理想。成功率无论在量上还是质上,都不能与生源质量较好又有深厚学术积淀的一本院校同日而语。而绝大多数选择毕业即择业的学生,在并不与他们所学专业、课程直接对应的职业招聘考录中言不成文、语不成体,在考查综合素质能力的面试中手足无措的现象不在少数。因此现实是,一方面是学生苦读四年毕业后难以找到满意的工作,另一方面是用人单位难以录用到学用相适、上岗即能工作的实用人才。更为严峻的是,现今地方性院校已经占据我国高等院校总数6/7的份额,已无可置疑成为大众化时期高等教育的主体。而这些院校办学方向模糊造成的投入产出失衡、学生学用不适、校地人才供求脱节,不是个案和局部,而是普遍性全局性的问题。由此造成的问题是:这些院校越是在既有路线上发展扩大,越是造成资源和人才的浪费。其教师在一心培养高层次学术人才的课堂上传授越多,对学生掌控越多,学生开拓创新的能力、职业综合能力、社会适应能力越是不足,越是难以逃脱“理论基本不用”“、实践基本不会”和“毕业即失业”,的魔咒。而国家,在缓解了人口压力造成的高等教育压力的同时,却把就业压力抛向了社会,造成了新的民生问题和社会问题。同质化教育引发的地方院校以及我国高等教育整体问题,从中央到地方、从行政管理部门到实体院校,早已形成自省自警的共识。同时也都预见到,随着生育高峰期人口完成高等教育及高等教育适龄人口基数实际减小,我国高等教育已在蕴积新的矛盾和危机,那就是即将到来的院校间残酷的生源竞争。生源竞争将是物质基础、学术环境都相对较差的地方院校必然面临的危机和挑战。那么地方院校的出路在哪里?发展图存的希望何在?应该在国家政策的框架下谋发展,在自身个性化特色化发展中求生存。要充分领会教育行政部门“分类指导、准确定位、办出特色”的指示精神,要充分理解国家“培养适应经济社会发展的数以千万计的高素质专门人才和一大批拔尖创新人才”的高等院校层级化发展思路,从中找到适合自身内情与环境的合理定位。那就是以培养“高素质专门人才”为宗旨,以立足一方服务一方为原则,走应用型人才培养和地域化个性化发展之路,办满足地方经济及社会发展对多样化人才需求的应用型大学。二、应用型人才培养体系中课程教学的问题与地位新世纪之后,国家和教育部持续适时颁发纲领性文件,实施和推动我国高等教育改革的不断深化。2005年教高1号文件《教育部关于进一步加强高等学校本科教学工作的若干意见》,做出了“坚持科学的发展观,实现高等教育工作重心的转移,在规模持续发展的同时,把提高质量放在更加突出的位置”的部署,倡导高等教育工作重心由扩大规模向加强内涵建设的战略性转移。2007年1月教育部、财政部联合发文《教育部财政部关于实施高等学校本科教学质量与教学改革工程的意见》,启动本科教学“质量工程”,提出“按照‘分类指导、鼓励特色、重在改革’的原则,加强内涵建设,提升我国高等教育的质量和整体实力”的基本路线,并以明确具体的建设目标、内容和资金支持,落实高等教育从“保量”到“提质”的切实转换。紧随其后的教育部2号文件《教育部关于进一步深化本科教学改革全面提高教学质量的若干意见》,进一步提出了“高等学校要根据经济社会发展需要,科学定位,办出水平,办出特色”的教育发展总体路线。到2012年教育部4号文件《教育部关于全面提高等教育质量的若干意见》,则进而明确提出了“探索建立高校分类体系,制定分类管理办法,克服同质化倾向。根据办学历史、区位优势和资源条件等,确定特色鲜明的办学定位、发展规划、人才培养规格和学科专业设置”的具体方针。国家层面改革与发展的思路清晰透明,这推动了国内高等教育理论界及实践者对大众化教育深化改革、加强内涵建设,以及高等学校分类定位、层级化发展诸问题的广泛探讨,更推动了学界和实体高校对源于上世纪70年代德国的“应用性大学“”应用型人才”培养模式的深入理论探讨和实践探索。在国家继续实施的“985工程”、“211工程”和新开辟的优势学科创新平台、特色重点学科项目及本科教学“质量工程”等政策、资金、项目、平台等支持下,对于占据我国当前高等教育主体地位的地方院校的“应用型人才培养”理论及实践的探索,均取得了丰硕成果。但从形成的成果结论看,刚刚建立的大众教育应用型人才培养体系已出现新的“结构性短缺”。首先是学科分类内部结构失调。从大的学科分类看,应用型人才培养的理论探讨和实践集中在理工类和新兴应用类学科上。主要探索上述学科实验教学场地、实践教学基地、校企合作、校地合作、产学研一体化等多种人才培养渠道的开发和建设。而既难言成果转化也难言实际应用,而一向作为提高人综合文化素养、人文素质和的传统人文社科类遭冷遇、被搁置,在“应用型”理论和实践大潮中失去了存在的价值和依据。继而在人文社科范畴内,外国文学课程所属汉语言文学及历史等传统人文类专业,因其既非“理论”也非“科学”,而只是人类文明进程中人物、事件、精神、物质等成果材料的汇集梳理,且不与当前经济社会特定产业、行业直接对接,不具备“实操性”和“应用性”,从而全局失利,在方兴未艾的“应用型”理论与实践探讨中失重失语。在定位为“应用型本科”的地方院校自我绘制的“精文、强理、重应用”的发展蓝图中,文科的下行路线已十分明晰。进而在已经失重的人文类汉语言文学专业中,主干课外国文学又因其不具有文学及写作理论课对创作实践的先验指导性,也不具有语言课对言语文实践的经验总结性,而与中国各段代文学课一起与“应用”相关的一切断裂和绝缘。从“文科”到“人文”再到“文学”,在当前经济社会,在重应用型人才培养的大众高等教育中,似乎已毫无用处,丧失了安身立命的依凭。第二,是实践及理论探索的视域有所局限。统观国内相关理论成果材料和实践总结报告,对应用型人才培养模式的探讨和实践主要局限在学校宏观体系建设方面,如制度保证、资金落实、项目带动、师资队伍建设、实践教学改进等宏观因素。而对决定教育改革成败和人才培养成效的学科、专业、课程等教育活动主体内容———教学层面落实问题探索不足。还局限在“合理调整专业结构”“、优化课程体系”“、推进课程体系、教学内容、教学方法和手段的改革”等原则意见的提出,而对教学改革的核心问题———课程教学内容体系、模式方法、评介考核等应用型改革与实践实操层面问题的研究,目前还实为缺位。课程改革是教育教学中的核心地位,国内应用型人才培养理论的奠基者潘懋元先生曾指出:“任何教育的最终效果取决于直接面对学生的课程建设和实施过程,因此课程建设是当前提高高等教育质量的核心环节。对于以人才培养类型作为分类标准的高校分类,最终也要落实在与人才培养密切相关的课程。因此,建设应用型本科课程是当前推进高校分类发展进而提高教育质量的重要举措。”因而,在国家政策积极引导、资金大力支持、院校层面应用型人才培养宏观体系构划业已就绪局面下,学科、专业、课程三级教学层面应用型人才培养模式的探索已无可退缩,它已占据大众教育改革深化最后攻坚克难的关键地位。而外国文学作为地方院校非应用类专业的主干课,也应牢固树立应用型人才培养的理念,努力探索满足社会经济发展对实践型、创新型、复合型人才需要的应用型人才培养之路,建立应用型教学改革和实践的课程体系。这既是大众高等教育改革深化的当务之急,也是地方院校一线教师当前要完成的首要工作任务。任务重大而紧迫而,不容松懈。
On suprasegmental features Introduction So far we havebeen talking about phonetic features as they apply to single phonetic segments,or phones. Phonetic features can also apply to a string of severalsounds, such as a syllable, or an entire word or utterance. The study ofphonological features which applies to groups larger than the single segment,are known as suprasegmentalfeatures, such as the syllable or the word. The study of these features is knownas prosody. It mainly includessyllable, stress, pitch, tone, and intonation. In this paper, I will talk aboutthe suprasegmental features ingreat detail. Key words: phonetic, suprasegmental. Syllable The most obvious prosodic feature in languageis the syllable. Let's briefly discuss the notion of syllables. Like all of our other basic linguistic concepts,although everyone knows what a syllable is, the concept "syllable" isdifficult to define in absolute terms. A syllable can be divided into threeparts, that is, onset, nucleus, and coda, of which nucleus is a must. Asyllable that has no coda is called an open syllable while a syllable with codais called a closed syllable. In English only long vowels and diphthongs canoccur in open syllables. The onset may be empty or filled by a cluster of asmany as three consonants, while the coda position may be filled as many as fourconsonants. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice asto where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the some languages, syllables are always open,that is, they always end in a vowel, never a consonant. (Hawaiian) On the other hand, every Hawaiian syllable must begin with a consonant. (Aloha spoken as a single word beginsin a glottal stop.) In other languages, syllables are always closed; they mustend in a consonant (Navaho): Háá'ishah dididiljah. Let's build a fire. Táá diné 'ooljéé'go naaskai' Three men went to the moon. (LikeHawaiian, they must also begin in a consonant.)Stress The nature of stress The word stress is used differently bydifferent authors, and the relationship between stress, emphasis, accent andprominence is also defined differently. Robins has defined it as “a genericterm for the relatively greater force exerted in the articulation of part ofutterance”. The nature of stress is simple enough—practically everyone wouldagree that the first syllable of words like“father”, “open” is stressed, thatthe middle syllable is stressed in “potato”, “apartment” and the final syllableis stressed in “about”, “perhaps”, and most people feel they have some sort ofidea of what the difference is between stressed and unstressed syllables,though they might explain it in many different production of stress is generallybelieved to depend on the speaker using more muscular energy than is used forunstressed syllables. From the perceptual point of view, all stressed syllableshave one characteristic in common, and that is “prominence”. Roach hasmanifested that at least four different factors are important to make asyllable prominent:i) Loudness: Most people seem to feelthat stressed syllables are louder than unstressed ones; in other words,loudness is a component of ) Length: The length of syllables hasan important part to play in prominence; the syllables which are made longerthan the others will be heard as ) Pitch: Pitch in speech is closelyrelated to the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds and to the musicalnotion of low-pitched and high-pitched notes; if one syllable is said with apitch that is noticeably different from that of the others, this will have astrong tendency to produce the effect of ) Quality: a syllable will tend to be prominentif it contains a vowel that is different in quality from neighboring vowels. Languages differ in how they use ) In some languages, eachsyllable is equally stressed or unstressed,as in Cambodian2) the syllable in eachword is more stressed. Theplace of stress is fixed on acertain syllable:1) initial. Finnish,Hungarian and other Finno-Ugric languages2) penultimate. Polish,3) final. ) Complex set ofrules. In Bulgarian nouns and verbs have separate sets of rules forstress placement. Hopi (phonetic: first syllable of a two syllableword: síkwi meat; inwords of three or more syllables, accent falls on the first long vowel: máamatsi to recognize; or onthe first short vowel before a consonant cluster: péntani to write; otherwise it falls on thenext to last syllable: wunúvtu standup)The place of stress is ) In Russian the stress iscompletely random: xoroshó, xoró) In English the stress ismore predictable but still random. Usually a middle syllable of a longerword receives the stress. In two syllable words stress is rando and oftenrenders differences in meaning: project/toproject, produce/produce, and insult/ to insult. Some languages have more than one stress perword: English is such a language. In English, words of foursyllables or more have a primaryand a secondary stress. SomeEnglish compounds have phrasal stress on the first element of thecompound. Phrasal stress often distinguishes meaning in adjective/nouncombinations. Sentence stress in English According to He Shanfen (1992), Englishsentence stress has two main functions:⑴ to indicate the important words in thesentence; ⑵ to serve as thebasis for the rhythmic structure of the sentence. Consequently, in connected English speech,sentence stress usually falls on content ( or lexical) words, which carry thebasic meaning of a sentence, . nouns, adjectives, adverbs etc. Those whichare usually unstressed in sentences are form (or structural) words, which showgrammatical relationships, such as articles, auxiliary and modal verbs,monosyllabic prepositions, Another prosodic feature is pitch, defined as the frequency ofvibration of vocal cords. Pitch is measured in hertzes. Physiologically, pitch tends to be higher inwoman than in men and higher before puberty than after puberty. Also, thepitch of women's voices tends to lower with old age; the pitch of men's voicestends to get higher with age. Despite these physiological, non-linguisticuniversal, each language uses pitch distinctions for linguisticallymeaningful purposes. Startingfrom the lowest pitch on the initial syllable, the pitch of each subsequentsyllable raises until the word reaches the "peak". From that point,pitch either remains at the same level for the remainder of the word or itdrops again. The choice between maintenance of high pitch or allowing it todrop is a matter of formality: pitch is maintained in formal or careful speech,but dropped in colloquial usage.七.ConclusionBeing the most important part, suprasegmental features can not be despised in phonology the whole passage, we can understand that suprasegmentalfeatures not only has its phonology significance, but also the practicaluse as well. We can not say this person is a good language user just by his orher vocabulary, as well as the grammar. Spoken language is also very useful. Ido hope that the paper will be sufficient to prove that suprasegmental features is an efficient way for our studies and encouragemore and more students to pay attention to using 【1】CaoJianfen. The Rhythm of Mandarin Chinese. Instituteof Linguistics of Chinese Academyof Social Science. RPR-IL/CASS (2000-2002).【2】Chen . Contrastive Study of Suprasegmental Phonology in English and Chinese: aFunctional Perspective. MA: Southwest China Normal University.【3】Chomsky,N. & Halle,M. 1968. The Sound Pattern of English. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers.