艾滋病论文英文

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a set of symptoms and infections resulting from the damage to the human immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).[1] This condition progressively reduces the effectiveness of the immune system and leaves individuals susceptible to opportunistic infections and tumors. HIV is transmitted through direct contact of a mucous membrane or the bloodstream with a bodily fluid containing HIV, such as blood, semen, vaginal fluid, preseminal fluid, and breast milk.[2][3] This transmission can involve anal, vaginal or oral sex, blood transfusion, contaminated hypodermic needles, exchange between mother and baby during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding, or other exposure to one of the above bodily is now a pandemic.[4] In 2007, an estimated million people lived with the disease worldwide, and it killed an estimated million people, including 330,000 children.[5] Over three-quarters of these deaths occurred in sub-Saharan Africa,[5] retarding economic growth and destroying human capital.[6] Most researchers believe that HIV originated in sub-Saharan Africa during the twentieth century.[7] AIDS was first recognized by the . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 1981 and its cause, HIV, identified by American and French scientists in the early 1980s.[8]Although treatments for AIDS and HIV can slow the course of the disease, there is currently no vaccine or cure. Antiretroviral treatment reduces both the mortality and the morbidity of HIV infection, but these drugs are expensive and routine access to antiretroviral medication is not available in all countries.[9] Due to the difficulty in treating HIV infection, preventing infection is a key aim in controlling the AIDS epidemic, with health organizations promoting safe sex and needle-exchange programmes in attempts to slow the spread of the symptoms of AIDS are primarily the result of conditions that do not normally develop in individuals with healthy immune systems. Most of these conditions are infections caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites that are normally controlled by the elements of the immune system that HIV damages. Opportunistic infections are common in people with AIDS.[10] HIV affects nearly every organ system. People with AIDS also have an increased risk of developing various cancers such as Kaposi's sarcoma, cervical cancer and cancers of the immune system known as lymphomas. Additionally, people with AIDS often have systemic symptoms of infection like fevers, sweats (particularly at night), swollen glands, chills, weakness, and weight loss.[11][12] The specific opportunistic infections that AIDS patients develop depend in part on the prevalence of these infections in the geographic area in which the patient infections X-ray of Pneumocystis jirovecii caused pneumonia. There is increased white (opacity) in the lower lungs on both sides, characteristic of Pneumocystis pneumoniaPneumocystis pneumonia (originally known as Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia, and still abbreviated as PCP, which now stands for Pneumocystis pneumonia) is relatively rare in healthy, immunocompetent people, but common among HIV-infected individuals. It is caused by Pneumocystis jirovecii. Before the advent of effective diagnosis, treatment and routine prophylaxis in Western countries, it was a common immediate cause of death. In developing countries, it is still one of the first indications of AIDS in untested individuals, although it does not generally occur unless the CD4 count is less than 200 cells per µL of blood.[13]Tuberculosis (TB) is unique among infections associated with HIV because it is transmissible to immunocompetent people via the respiratory route, is easily treatable once identified, may occur in early-stage HIV disease, and is preventable with drug therapy. However, multidrug resistance is a potentially serious problem. Even though its incidence has declined because of the use of directly observed therapy and other improved practices in Western countries, this is not the case in developing countries where HIV is most prevalent. In early-stage HIV infection (CD4 count >300 cells per µL), TB typically presents as a pulmonary disease. In advanced HIV infection, TB often presents atypically with extrapulmonary (systemic) disease a common feature. Symptoms are usually constitutional and are not localized to one particular site, often affecting bone marrow, bone, urinary and gastrointestinal tracts, liver, regional lymph nodes, and the central nervous system.[14]Gastrointestinal infectionsEsophagitis is an inflammation of the lining of the lower end of the esophagus (gullet or swallowing tube leading to the stomach). In HIV infected individuals, this is normally due to fungal (candidiasis) or viral (herpes simplex-1 or cytomegalovirus) infections. In rare cases, it could be due to mycobacteria.[15]Unexplained chronic diarrhea in HIV infection is due to many possible causes, including common bacterial (Salmonella, Shigella, Listeria or Campylobacter) and parasitic infections; and uncommon opportunistic infections such as cryptosporidiosis, microsporidiosis, Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) and viruses,[16] astrovirus, adenovirus, rotavirus and cytomegalovirus, (the latter as a course of colitis). In some cases, diarrhea may be a side effect of several drugs used to treat HIV, or it may simply accompany HIV infection, particularly during primary HIV infection. It may also be a side effect of antibiotics used to treat bacterial causes of diarrhea (common for Clostridium difficile). In the later stages of HIV infection, diarrhea is thought to be a reflection of changes in the way the intestinal tract absorbs nutrients, and may be an important component of HIV-related wasting.[17]Neurological and psychiatric involvementHIV infection may lead to a variety of neuropsychiatric sequelae, either by infection of the now susceptible nervous system by organisms, or as a direct consequence of the illness is a disease caused by the single-celled parasite called Toxoplasma gondii; it usually infects the brain, causing toxoplasma encephalitis, but it can also infect and cause disease in the eyes and lungs.[18] Cryptococcal meningitis is an infection of the meninx (the membrane covering the brain and spinal cord) by the fungus Cryptococcus neoformans. It can cause fevers, headache, fatigue, nausea, and vomiting. Patients may also develop seizures and confusion; left untreated, it can be multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) is a demyelinating disease, in which the gradual destruction of the myelin sheath covering the axons of nerve cells impairs the transmission of nerve impulses. It is caused by a virus called JC virus which occurs in 70% of the population in latent form, causing disease only when the immune system has been severely weakened, as is the case for AIDS patients. It progresses rapidly, usually causing death within months of diagnosis.[19]AIDS dementia complex (ADC) is a metabolic encephalopathy induced by HIV infection and fueled by immune activation of HIV infected brain macrophages and microglia. These cells are productively infected by HIV and secrete neurotoxins of both host and viral origin.[20] Specific neurological impairments are manifested by cognitive, behavioral, and motor abnormalities that occur after years of HIV infection and are associated with low CD4+ T cell levels and high plasma viral loads. Prevalence is 10–20% in Western countries[21] but only 1–2% of HIV infections in India.[22][23] This difference is possibly due to the HIV subtype in India. AIDS related mania is sometimes seen in patients with advanced HIV illness; it presents with more irritability and cognitive impairment and less euphoria than a manic episode associated with true bipolar disorder. Unlike the latter condition, it may have a more chronic course. This syndrome is less often seen with the advent of multi-drug and malignancies Kaposi's sarcomaPatients with HIV infection have substantially increased incidence of several cancers. This is primarily due to co-infection with an oncogenic DNA virus, especially Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), and human papillomavirus (HPV).[24][25]Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) is the most common tumor in HIV-infected patients. The appearance of this tumor in young homosexual men in 1981 was one of the first signals of the AIDS epidemic. Caused by a gammaherpes virus called Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpes virus (KSHV), it often appears as purplish nodules on the skin, but can affect other organs, especially the mouth, gastrointestinal tract, and B cell lymphomas such as Burkitt's lymphoma, Burkitt's-like lymphoma, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), and primary central nervous system lymphoma present more often in HIV-infected patients. These particular cancers often foreshadow a poor prognosis. In some cases these lymphomas are AIDS-defining. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) or KSHV cause many of these cancer in HIV-infected women is considered AIDS-defining. It is caused by human papillomavirus (HPV).[26]In addition to the AIDS-defining tumors listed above, HIV-infected patients are at increased risk of certain other tumors, such as Hodgkin's disease and anal and rectal carcinomas. However, the incidence of many common tumors, such as breast cancer or colon cancer, does not increase in HIV-infected patients. In areas where HAART is extensively used to treat AIDS, the incidence of many AIDS-related malignancies has decreased, but at the same time malignant cancers overall have become the most common cause of death of HIV-infected patients.[27]Other opportunistic infectionsAIDS patients often develop opportunistic infections that present with non-specific symptoms, especially low-grade fevers and weight loss. These include infection with Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare and cytomegalovirus (CMV). CMV can cause colitis, as described above, and CMV retinitis can cause blindness. Penicilliosis due to Penicillium marneffei is now the third most common opportunistic infection (after extrapulmonary tuberculosis and cryptococcosis) in HIV-positive individuals within the endemic area of Southeast Asia.[28]

提供资料 什么是艾滋病（AIDS） 艾滋病是英语"AIDS"中文名称，AIDS是获得性免疫缺陷综合征的英文缩写。它是由于感染了人类免疫缺陷病毒（简称HIV）后引起的一种致死性传染病。HIV主要破坏人体的免疫系统，使机体逐渐丧失防卫能力而不能抵抗外界的各种病原体，因此极易感染一般健康人所不易患的感染性疾病和肿瘤，最终导致死亡。一个感染上艾滋病病毒的人，也许会在很长的一段时间内看上去或是自我感觉起来很好，但是他们却可以把病毒传染给别人。艾滋病从发现至今还不到20年，但它在全球所引起的广泛流行，已使3000多万人受到感染，1000多万人失去了生命。目前，世界上每天有万余人新感染上艾滋病病毒。不但医学界在竭尽全力研究预防治疗艾滋，各国政府，社会各阶层也都纷纷投入了对抗艾滋病的运动。但到目前为止，我们人类还没有找到一种治疗此病的方法。因此，为了自身的健康和家庭的幸福，大家都应该关注艾滋病。了解艾滋病，进而预防艾滋病。 什么是艾滋病病毒（HIV） 艾滋病病毒的医学名称为"人类免疫缺陷病毒"（英文缩写HIV），它侵入人体后破环人体的免疫系统，使人体发生多种难以治愈的感染和肿瘤，最终导致死亡。 艾滋病病毒感染者和艾滋病人有哪些不同之处 艾滋病病毒感染者是指已经感染了艾滋病病毒，但是还没有表现出明显的临床症状，没有被确诊为艾滋病的人;艾滋病病人指的是已经感染了艾滋病病毒，并且已经出现了明显的临床症状，被确诊为艾滋病的人。 二者之间的相同之处在于都携带艾滋病病毒，都具有传染性.不同之处在于艾滋病病人已经出现了明显的临床症状，而艾滋病病毒感染者还没有出现明显的临床症状，外表看起来跟健康人一样。从艾滋病病毒感染者发展到艾滋病病人可能需要数年到10年甚至更长时间。 为什么说艾滋病是“超级绝症” 艾滋病的全称为获得性免疫缺陷综合症(AIDS)，通过性、血液和母婴三种接触方式传播，是一种严重危害健康的传染性疾病。当人体处于正常状态时，体内免疫系统可以有效抵抗各种病毒的袭击。一旦艾滋病病毒侵入人体体内，这种良好的防御体系便会土崩瓦解，各种病毒乘机通过血液、破损伤口长驱直入。此外，人体内一些像癌细胞之类的不正常细胞，也会迅速生长、繁殖，最终发展成各类癌瘤。通俗地讲，艾滋病病毒是通过破坏人的免疫系统和机体抵抗能力，而给人以致命的打击。 艾滋病起源于非洲，后由移民带入美国。1981年6月5日，美国亚特兰大疾病控制中心在《发病率与死亡率周刊》上简要介绍了5例艾滋病病人的病史，这是世界上第一次有关艾滋病的正式记载。1982年，这种疾病被命名为"艾滋病"。不久以后，艾滋病迅速蔓延到各大洲。1985年，一位到中国旅游的外籍青年患病入住北京协和医院后很快死亡，后被证实死于艾滋病。这是我国第一次发现艾滋病。 艾滋病严重地威胁着人类的生存，已引起世界卫生组织及各国政府的高度重视，人员及经费投入惊人。据统计，目前全球有近4000万人感染了艾滋病病毒，成千上万人命丧于此。据专家介绍，艾滋病病毒感染者从感染初期算起，要经过数年、甚至长达10年或更长的潜伏期后才会发展成艾滋病病人。艾滋病病人因抵抗能力极度下降会出现多种感染，如带状疱疹、口腔霉菌感染、肺结核，特殊病原微生物引起的肠炎、肺炎、脑炎等，后期常常发生恶性肿瘤，直至因长期消耗，全身衰竭而死亡。 虽然全世界众多医学研究人员付出了巨大的努力，但至今尚未研制出根治艾滋病的特效药物，也没有可用于预防的有效疫苗。目前，这种病死率几乎高达100%的"超级癌症"已被我国列入乙类法定传染病，并被列为国境卫生监测传染病之一.故此我们把其称为"超级绝症" 艾滋病的病原体 艾滋病即获得性免疫缺陷综合征（acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, AIDS）。这是一种慢性致死性传染病，由人类免疫缺陷病毒（human immunodeficiency virus, HIV）引起。HIV感染后导致人体免疫机能缺陷，从而发生机会性感染等一系列临床综合征，病死率几乎达100% HIV属于反转录病毒科，慢病毒属，灵长类免疫缺陷亚属。现已证实HIV分为两型：HIV-1型和HIV-2型，它们又有各自的亚型。不同地区流行的亚型不同，同一亚型在不同地区也存在一定差异。 艾滋病的发病机理 HIV病毒是一种杀细胞性病毒，此病毒主要在‘辅助性T淋巴细胞'内大量增殖使细胞破坏。而‘辅助性T淋巴细胞'是人体中极其重要的免疫细胞，它的破坏，逐渐导致免疫功能衰竭。这样，即使一个对正常人来说是微不足道的感染，如小伤口或普通感冒，也可以致艾滋病人于死地。 艾滋病机会感染的临床表现 所谓机会感染，即条件致病因素，是指一些侵袭力较低、致病力较弱的微生物，在人体免疫功能正常时不能致病，但当人体免疫功能减低时则为这类微生物造成一种感染的条件，乘机侵袭人体致病，故称作机会性感染。尸检结果表明，90％的艾滋病人死于机会感染。能引起艾滋病机会感染的病原多达几十种，而且常多种病原混合感染。主要包括原虫、病毒、真菌及细菌等的感染。 1．原虫类 （1）卡氏肺囊虫肺炎：卡氏肺囊虫是一种专在人的肺内造穴打洞的小原虫。人的肉眼看不见，而且用一般的生物培养方法也找不到。卡氏肺囊虫肺炎主要通过空气与飞沫经呼吸道传播。健康人在感染艾滋病毒后，免疫功能受到破坏，这时卡氏肺囊虫便乘虚而入，在病人体内大量繁殖，使肺泡中充满渗出液和各种形态的肺囊虫，造成肺部的严重破坏。 卡氏肺囊虫肺炎在艾滋病流行前是一种不常见的感染，过去仅发现于战争、饥饿时期的婴幼儿，或者接受免疫抑制治疗的白血病患儿。卡氏肺囊虫肺炎是艾滋病患者的一个常见死因，在60％以上的艾滋病患者中属于最严重的机会感染，约有80％的艾滋病患者至少要发生一次卡氏肺囊虫肺炎。 艾滋病患者合并卡氏肺囊虫肺炎时，首先有进行性营养不良、发热、全身不适、体重减轻、淋巴结肿大等症状。以后出现咳嗽、呼吸困难、胸痛等症状，病程4～6周。发热（89％）和呼吸急促（66％）为肺部最常见的体征。某些人肺部还可听到罗音。卡氏肺囊虫肺炎常复发，病情严重，是艾滋病患者常见的致死原因。卡氏肺囊虫肺炎病人胸片显示两肺广泛性浸润。但少部分患者（约占23％）其胸片可示正常或极少异常。据对180例卡氏肺囊虫肺炎X线胸片检查所见，表现为两侧间质性肺炎的77例，间质及肺泡炎症45例，肺门周围的间质炎症26例，单侧肺泡及间质炎症24例，未见异常者8例。 肺功能测定示肺总量及肺活量下降，随着病程的进展而进一步加剧。 气管镜或肺穿刺所取之标本可以查到卡氏肺囊虫，有时还可以查到其它病原体，此时为混合性机会感染。本病病程急剧；亦可缓慢，终因进行性呼吸困难、缺氧、发展为呼吸衰竭而死亡，其病死率可达90％～100％。 （2）弓形体感染：艾滋病人得弓形体感染主要引起神经系统弓形体病，其发生率为26％。临床表现为偏瘫，局灶性神经异常，抽搐、意识障碍及发热等。CT检查可见单个或多个局灶性病变。依据组织病理切片或脑脊液检查可见弓形体。极少数弓形体累及肺部（1％）。该病是由寄生性原虫动物鼠弓浆虫所致的一种动物传染病。人的感染途径，先天性感染是由母亲经胎盘传给胎儿．后天性感染是因吃了含有组织囊虫的生肉或未煮熟的肉而感染。 （3）隐孢子虫病：孢子虫是寄生于家畜和野生动物的小原虫，人感染后，附于小肠和大肠上皮，主要引起吸收不良性腹泻，病人表现为难以控制的大量水样便，每日5～10次以上，每天失水3～10升，病死率可高达50％以上。诊断靠肠镜活检或粪便中查到原虫的卵囊。 2．病毒类 （1）巨细胞病毒感染：根据血清学调查表明，巨细胞病毒广泛存在，多数巨细胞病毒感染者无症状，但巨细胞病毒感染的病人可在尿、唾液、粪便、眼泪、乳汁和精液中迁延排出病毒。并可经输血、母亲胎盘、器官移植、性交、吮哺母乳等方式传播。艾滋病伴巨细胞病毒感染时，常表现为肝炎、巨细胞病毒肺炎、巨细胞病毒性视网膜炎、血小板和白细胞减少、皮疹等。确诊巨细胞病毒感染必需在活检或尸解标本中找到包涵体或分离出病毒。根据Guarda等对13例艾滋病人尸解的研究，最常见的诊断是巨细胞病毒感染（12例），其次是卡波济氏肉瘤（l0例）。所有12例巨细胞病毒感染均为播散性，并且经常影响两个或多个器官。 （2）单纯疱疹病毒感染：其传播途径主要是直接接触和性接触，也可经飞沫传染，病毒可由呼吸道、口、眼、生殖器粘膜或破报皮肤侵入人体。孕妇在分娩时亦可传给婴儿。感染病毒后可引起艾滋病患者皮肤粘膜损害、累及口周、外阴、肛周、手背或食道以至支气管及肠道粘膜等，以唇缘、口角的单纯疱疹最常见，其损害呈高密集成群的小水疱，基底稍红，水疱被擦破后可形成溃疡，其溃疡特点为大而深且有疼痛，常伴继发感染，症状多较严重，病程持续时间长，病损部位可培养出单纯疱疹病毒，活检可查到典型的包涵体。 （3）EB病毒：该病毒在艾滋病人中感染率很高，有96%的艾滋病人血清中可检测到EB病毒抗体，EB病毒可致原发性单核细胞增多症，伴溶血性贫血、淋巴结肿大、全身斑疹，T细胞减少等。

写一篇关于艾滋病的论文，要从 写一篇关于艾滋病的论文，要从那几 个方面着手呢？给我设计个提纲啊。 那几 个方面着手呢？给我设计个提纲啊。

分段写，第一段，第二段……

英文演讲：奥巴马演讲 公布抗击艾滋病战略1 THE PRESIDENT: Hello, everybody! Hello! (Applause.) Hello. Hello, hello, hello. Hello. Well, good evening, everybody. This is a pretty feisty（活跃的，吵闹的） group here. (Laughter.)AUDIENCE MEMBER: We love you, President!THE PRESIDENT: Love you back. Thank you. (Applause.) Thank you. Well, it is a privilege（特权，优待） to speak with all of you. Welcome to the White me begin by welcoming the Cabinet Secretaries who are here. I know I saw at least one of them, Kathleen Sebelius, our outstanding Secretary of Health and Human Services. (Applause.) I want to thank all the members of Congress who are present and all the distinguished guests（贵宾） that are here -- that includes all of particular, I want to recognize Ambassador Eric Goosby, our Global AIDS Coordinator. (Applause.) Eric’s leadership of the President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief is doing so much to save so many lives around the world. He will be leading our delegation to the International AIDS Conference in Vienna next week. And so I’m grateful for his outstanding service. (Applause.)And I want to also thank the Presidential Advisory Council on HIV/AIDS. (Applause.) Thank you -- and the Federal HIV Interagency Working Group for all the work that they are doing. So thank you very much. (Applause.)Now, it’s been nearly 30 years since a CDC publication called Morbidity（发病率，病态） and Mortality Weekly Report first documented five cases of an illness that would come to be known as HIV/AIDS. In the beginning, of course, it was known as the “gay disease” –- a disease surrounded by fear and misunderstanding; a disease we were too slow to confront and too slow to turn back. In the decades since -– as epidemics have emerged in countries throughout Africa and around the globe -– we’ve grown better equipped, as individuals and as nations, to fight this activists, researchers, community leaders who’ve waged a battle against AIDS for so long, including many of you here in this room, we have learned what we can do to stop the spread of the disease. We’ve learned what we can do to extend the lives of people living with it. And we’ve been reminded of our obligations to one another -– obligations that, like the virus itself, transcend（胜过，超越） barriers of race or station or sexual orientation or faith or the question is not whether we know what to do, but whether we will do it. (Applause.) Whether we will fulfill those obligations; whether we will marshal（整理，引领） our resources and the political will to confront a tragedy that is of us are here because we are committed to that cause. We’re here because we believe that while HIV transmission rates in this country are not as high as they once were, every new case is one case too many. We’re here because we believe in an America where those living with HIV/AIDS are not viewed with suspicion, but treated with respect; where they’re provided the medications and health care they need; where they can live out their lives as fully as their health we’re here because of the extraordinary men and women whose stories compel（强迫，迫使） us to stop this scourge（鞭，灾祸） . I’m going to call out a few people here -- people like Benjamin Banks, who right now is completing a master’s degree in public health, planning a family with his wife, and deciding whether to run another half-marathon. Ben has also been HIV-positive for 29 years -– a virus he contracted during cancer surgery as a child. So inspiring others to fight the disease has become his ’re here because of people like Craig Washington, who after seeing what was happening in his community -– friends passing away; life stories sanitized（消毒，使清洁） , as he put it, at funerals; homophobi（对同性恋的恐惧） , all the discrimination that surrounded the disease –- Craig got tested, disclosed his status, with the support of his partner and his family, and took up the movement for prevention and awareness in which he is a leader ’re here because of people like Linda Scruggs. (Applause.) Linda learned she was HIV-positive about two decades ago when she went in for prenatal care. Then and there, she decided to turn her life around, and she left a life of substance abuse behind, she became an advocate for women, she empowered them to break free from what she calls the bondage（奴役，束缚） of secrecy. She inspired her son, who was born healthy, to become an AIDS activist ’re here because of Linda and Craig and Ben, and because of over 1 million Americans living with HIV/AIDS and the nearly 600,000 Americans who’ve lost their lives to the disease. It’s on their behalf -– and on the behalf of all Americans -– that we began a national dialogue about combating AIDS at the beginning of this recent months, we’ve held 14 community discussions. We’ve spoken with over 4,200 people. We’ve received over 1,000 recommendations on the White House website, devising an approach not from the top down but from the bottom today, we’re releasing our National HIV/AIDS Strategy, which is the product -- (applause) -- which is the product of these conversations, and conversations with HIV-positive Americans and health care providers, with business leaders, with faith leaders, and the best policy and scientific minds in our , I know that this strategy comes at a difficult time for Americans living with HIV/AIDS, because we’ve got cash-strapped states who are being forced to cut back on essentials, including assistance for AIDS drugs. I know the need is great. And that’s why we’ve increased federal assistance each year that I’ve been in office, providing an emergency supplement this year to help people get the drugs they need, even as we pursue a national strategy that focuses on three central goal: prevention. We can’t afford to rely on any single prevention method alone, so our strategy promotes a comprehensive approach to reducing the number of new HIV infections -– from expanded testing so people can learn their status, to education so people can curb risky behaviors, to drugs that can prevent a mother from transmitting a virus to her support our new direction, we’re investing $30 million in new money, and I’ve committed to working with Congress to make sure these investments continue in the future.