关于欧拉的论文的参考文献

中英文对照太难了英文的维基百科Leonhard Euler Leonhard Euler (pronounced Oiler; IPA [ˈɔʏlɐ]) (April 15, 1707 – September 18 [O.S. September 7] 1783) was a pioneering Swiss mathematician and physicist, who spent most of his life in Russia and Germany. He published more papers than any other mathematician in history.[1]Euler made important discoveries in fields as diverse as calculus and topology. He also introduced much of the modern mathematical terminology and notation, particularly for mathematical analysis, such as the notion of a mathematical function.[2] He is also renowned for his work in mechanics, optics, and astronomy.Euler is considered to be the preeminent mathematician of the 18th century and one of the greatest of all time. He is also one of the most prolific; his collected works fill 60–80 quarto volumes.[3] A statement attributed to Pierre-Simon Laplace expresses Euler's influence on mathematics: "Read Euler, read Euler, he is a master for us all".[4]Euler was featured on the sixth series of the Swiss 10-franc banknote[5] and on numerous Swiss, German, and Russian postage stamps. The asteroid 2002 Euler was named in his honor. He is also commemorated by the Lutheran Church on their Calendar of Saints on May 24.Contents [hide]1 Biography 1.1 Childhood 1.2 St. Petersburg 1.3 Berlin 1.4 Eyesight deterioration 1.5 Last stage of life 2 Contributions to mathematics 2.1 Mathematical notation 2.2 Analysis 2.3 Number theory 2.4 Graph theory 2.5 Applied mathematics 2.6 Physics and astronomy 2.7 Logic 3 Philosophy and religious beliefs 4 Selected bibliography 5 See also 6 Notes 7 Further reading 8 External links [edit] Biography[edit] Childhood Swiss 10 Franc banknote honoring Euler, the most successful Swiss mathematician in history.Euler was born in Basel to Paul Euler, a pastor of the Reformed Church, and Marguerite Brucker, a pastor's daughter. He had two younger sisters named Anna Maria and Maria Magdalena. Soon after the birth of Leonhard, the Eulers moved from Basel to the town of Riehen, where Euler spent most of his childhood. Paul Euler was a family friend of the Bernoullis, and Johann Bernoulli, who was then regarded as Europe's foremost mathematician, would eventually be an important influence on the young Leonhard. His early formal education started in Basel, where he was sent to live with his maternal grandmother. At the age of thirteen he matriculated at the University of Basel, and in 1723, received a masters of philosophy degree with a dissertation that compared the philosophies of Descartes and Newton. At this time, he was receiving Saturday afternoon lessons from Johann Bernoulli, who quickly discovered his new pupil's incredible talent for mathematics.[6]Euler was at this point studying theology, Greek, and Hebrew at his father's urging, in order to become a pastor. Johann Bernoulli intervened, and convinced Paul Euler that Leonhard was destined to become a great mathematician. In 1726, Euler completed his Ph.D. dissertation on the propagation of sound with the title De Sono[7] and in 1727, he entered the Paris Academy Prize Problem competition, where the problem that year was to find the best way to place the masts on a ship. He won second place, losing only to Pierre Bouguer—a man now known as "the father of naval architecture". Euler, however, would eventually win the coveted annual prize twelve times in his career.[8][edit] St. PetersburgAround this time Johann Bernoulli's two sons, Daniel and Nicolas, were working at the Imperial Russian Academy of Sciences in St Petersburg. In July 1726, Nicolas died of appendicitis after spending a year in Russia, and when Daniel assumed his brother's position in the mathematics/physics division, he recommended that the post in physiology that he had vacated be filled by his friend Euler. In November 1726 Euler eagerly accepted the offer, but delayed making the trip to St Petersburg. In the interim he unsuccessfully applied for a physics professorship at the University of Basel.[9]1957 stamp of the former Soviet Union commemorating the 250th birthday of Euler. The text says: 250 years from the birth of the great mathematician and academician, Leonhard Euler.Euler arrived in the Russian capital on May 17, 1727. He was promoted from his junior post in the medical department of the academy to a position in the mathematics department. He lodged with Daniel Bernoulli with whom he often worked in close collaboration. Euler mastered Russian and settled into life in St Petersburg. He also took on an additional job as a medic in the Russian Navy.[10]The Academy at St. Petersburg, established by Peter the Great, was intended to improve education in Russia and to close the scientific gap with Western Europe. As a result, it was made especially attractive to foreign scholars like Euler: the academy possessed ample financial resources and a comprehensive library drawn from the private libraries of Peter himself and of the nobility. Very few students were enrolled in the academy so as to lessen the faculty's teaching burden, and the academy emphasized research and offered to its faculty both the time and the freedom to pursue scientific questions.[8]However, the Academy's benefactress, Catherine I, who had attempted to continue the progressive policies of her late husband, died the day of Euler's arrival. The Russian nobility then gained power upon the ascension of the twelve-year-old Peter II. The nobility were suspicious of the academy's foreign scientists, and thus cut funding and caused numerous other difficulties for Euler and his colleagues.Conditions improved slightly upon the death of Peter II, and Euler swiftly rose through the ranks in the academy and was made professor of physics in 1731. Two years later, Daniel Bernoulli, who was fed up with the censorship and hostility he faced at St. Petersburg, left for Basel. Euler succeeded him as the head of the mathematics department.[11]On January 7, 1734, he married Katharina Gsell, daughter of a painter from the Academy Gymnasium. The young couple bought a house by the Neva River, and had thirteen children, of whom only five survived childhood.[12][edit] Berlin Stamp of the former German Democratic Republic honoring Euler on the 200th anniversary of his death. In the middle, it is showing his polyhedral formula.Concerned about continuing turmoil in Russia, Euler debated whether to stay in St. Petersburg or not. Frederick the Great of Prussia offered him a post at the Berlin Academy, which he accepted. He left St. Petersburg on June 19, 1741 and lived twenty-five years in Berlin, where he wrote over 380 articles. In Berlin, he published the two works which he would be most renowned for: the Introductio in analysin infinitorum, a text on functions published in 1748 and the Institutiones calculi differentialis, a work on differential calculus.[13]In addition, Euler was asked to tutor the Princess of Anhalt-Dessau, Frederick's niece. He wrote over 200 letters to her, which were later compiled into a best-selling volume, titled the Letters of Euler on different Subjects in Natural Philosophy Addressed to a German Princess. This work contained Euler's exposition on various subjects pertaining to physics and mathematics, as well as offering valuable insight on Euler's personality and religious beliefs. This book ended up being more widely read than any of his mathematical works, and was published all across Europe and in the United States. The popularity of the Letters testifies to Euler's ability to communicate scientific matters effectively to a lay audience, a rare ability for a dedicated research scientist.[13]Despite Euler's immense contribution to the Academy's prestige, he was eventually forced to leave Berlin. This was caused in part by a personality conflict with Frederick. Frederick came to regard him as unsophisticated especially in comparison to the circle of philosophers the German king brought to the Academy. Voltaire was among those in Frederick's employ, and the Frenchman enjoyed a favored position in the king's social circle. Euler, a simple religious man and a hard worker, was very conventional in his beliefs and tastes. He was in many ways the direct opposite of Voltaire. Euler had very limited training in rhetoric and tended to debate matters that he knew little about, making him a frequent target of Voltaire's wit.[13] Frederick also expressed disappointment with Euler's practical engineering abilities:I wanted to have a water jet in my garden: Euler calculated the force of the wheels necessary to raise the water to a reservoir, from where it should fall back through channels, finally spurting out in Sanssouci. My mill was carried out geometrically and could not raise a mouthful of water closer than fifty paces to the reservoir. Vanity of vanities! Vanity of geometry![14][edit] Eyesight deterioration A 1753 portrait by Emanuel Handmann. This portrayal suggests problems of the right eyelid and that Euler is perhaps suffering from strabismus. The left eye appears healthy, as it was a later cataract that destroyed it.[15]Euler's eyesight worsened throughout his mathematical career. Three years after suffering a near-fatal fever in 1735 he became nearly blind in his right eye, but Euler rather blamed his condition on the painstaking work on cartography he performed for the St. Petersburg Academy. Euler's sight in that eye worsened throughout his stay in Germany, so much so that Frederick referred to him as "Cyclops". Euler later suffered a cataract in his good left eye, rendering him almost totally blind a few weeks after its discovery. Even so, his condition appeared to have little effect on his productivity, as he compensated for it with his mental calculation skills and photographic memory. For example, Euler could repeat the Aeneid of Virgil from beginning to end without hesitation, and for every page in the edition he could indicate which line was the first and which the last.[3][edit] Last stage of life Euler's grave at the Alexander Nevsky Laura.The situation in Russia had improved greatly since the ascension of Catherine the Great, and in 1766 Euler accepted an invitation to return to the St. Petersburg Academy and spent the rest of his life in Russia. His second stay in the country was marred by tragedy. A 1771 fire in St. Petersburg cost him his home and almost his life. In 1773, he lost his wife of 40 years. Euler would remarry three years later.On September 18, 1783, Euler passed away in St. Petersburg after suffering a brain hemorrhage and was buried in the Alexander Nevsky Laura. His eulogy was written for the French Academy by the French mathematician and philosopher Marquis de Condorcet, and an account of his life, with a list of his works, by Nikolaus von Fuss, Euler's son-in-law and the secretary of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg. Condorcet commented,"...il cessa de calculer et de vivre," (he ceased to calculate and to live).[16] [edit] Contributions to mathematicsEuler worked in almost all areas of mathematics: geometry, calculus, trigonometry, algebra, and number theory, not to mention continuum physics, lunar theory and other areas of physics. His importance in the history of mathematics cannot be overstated: if printed, his works, many of which are of fundamental interest, would occupy between 60 and 80 quarto volumes[3] and Euler's name is associated with an impressive number of topics. The 20th century Hungarian mathematician Paul Erdős is perhaps the only other mathematician who could be considered to be as prolific.[edit] Mathematical notationEuler introduced and popularized several notational conventions through his numerous and widely circulated textbooks. Most notably, he introduced the concept of a function[2] and was the first to write f(x) to denote the function f applied to the argument x. He also introduced the modern notation for the trigonometric functions, the letter e for the base of the natural logarithm (now also known as Euler's number), the Greek letter ∑ for summations and the letter i to denote the imaginary unit.[17] The use of the Greek letter π to denote the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter was also popularized by Euler, although it did not originate with him.[18] Euler also contributed to the development of the the history of complex numbers system (the notation system of defining negative roots with a + bi).[19][edit] AnalysisThe development of calculus was at the forefront of 18th century mathematical research, and the Bernoullis—family friends of Euler—were responsible for much of the early progress in the field. Thanks to their influence, studying calculus naturally became the major focus of Euler's work. While some of Euler's proofs may not have been acceptable under modern standards of rigour,[20] his ideas led to many great advances.He is well known in analysis for his frequent use and development of power series: that is, the expression of functions as sums of infinitely many terms, such asNotably, Euler discovered the power series expansions for e and the inverse tangent function. His daring (and, by modern standards, technically incorrect) use of power series enabled him to solve the famous Basel problem in 1735:[20]A geometric interpretation of Euler's formulaEuler introduced the use of the exponential function and logarithms in analytic proofs. He discovered ways to express various logarithmic functions in terms of power series, and successfully defined logarithms for negative and complex numbers, thus greatly expanding the scope where logarithms could be applied in mathematics.[17] He also defined the exponential function for complex numbers and discovered its relation to the trigonometric functions. For any real number φ, Euler's formula states that the complex exponential function satisfiesA special case of the above formula is known as Euler's identity,called "the most remarkable formula in mathematics" by Richard Feynman, for its single uses of the notions of addition, multiplication, exponentiation, and equality, and the single uses of the important constants 0, 1, e, i, and π.[21]In addition, Euler elaborated the theory of higher transcendental functions by introducing the gamma function and introduced a new method for solving quartic equations. He also found a way to calculate integrals with complex limits, foreshadowing the development of modern complex analysis, and invented the calculus of variations including its most well-known result, the Euler-Lagrange equation.Euler also pioneered the use of analytic methods to solve number theory problems. In doing so, he united two disparate branches of mathematics and introduced a new field of study, analytic number theory. In breaking ground for this new field, Euler created the theory of hypergeometric series, q-series, hyperbolic trigonometric functions and the analytic theory of continued fractions. For example, he proved the infinitude of primes using the divergence of the harmonic series, and used analytic methods to gain some understanding of the way prime numbers are distributed. Euler's work in this area led to the development of the prime number theorem.[22][edit] Number theoryEuler's great interest in number theory can be traced to the influence of his friend in the St. Petersburg Academy, Christian Goldbach. A lot of his early work on number theory was based on the works of Pierre de Fermat. Euler developed some of Fermat's ideas while disproving some of his more outlandish conjectures.One focus of Euler's work was to link the nature of prime distribution with ideas in analysis. He proved that the sum of the reciprocals of the primes diverges. In doing so, he discovered the connection between Riemann zeta function and prime numbers, known as the Euler product formula for the Riemann zeta function.Euler proved Newton's identities, Fermat's little theorem, Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares, and made distinct contributions to Lagrange's four-square theorem. He also invented the totient function φ(n) which assigns to a positive integer n the number of positive integers less than n and coprime to n. Using properties of this function he was able to generalize Fermat's little theorem to what would become known as Euler's theorem. He further contributed significantly to the understanding of perfect numbers, which had fascinated mathematicians since Euclid. Euler made progress toward the prime number theorem and conjectured the law of quadratic reciprocity. The two concepts are regarded as the fundamental theorems of number theory, and his ideas paved the way for Carl Friedrich Gauss.[23][edit] Graph theorySee also: Seven Bridges of Königsberg Map of Königsberg in Euler's time showing the actual layout of the seven bridges, highlighting the river Pregel and the bridges.In 1736, Euler solved a problem known as the Seven Bridges of Königsberg.[24] The city of Königsberg, Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia) is set on the Pregel River, and included two large islands which were connected to each other and the mainland by seven bridges. The question is whether it is possible to walk with a route that crosses each bridge exactly once, and return to the starting point. It is not; and therefore not an Eulerian circuit. This solution is considered to be the first theorem of graph theory and planar graph theory.[24] Euler also introduced the notion now known as the Euler characteristic of a space and a formula relating the number of edges, vertices, and faces of a convex polyhedron with this constant. The study and generalization of this formula, specifically by Cauchy[25] and L'Huillier,[26] is at the origin of topology.[edit] Applied mathematicsSome of Euler's greatest successes were in using analytic methods to solve real world problems, describing numerous applications of Bernoulli's numbers, Fourier series, Venn diagrams, Euler numbers, e and π constants, continued fractions and integrals. He integrated Leibniz's differential calculus with Newton's method of fluxions, and developed tools that made it easier to apply calculus to physical problems. He made great strides in improving the numerical approximation of integrals, inventing what are now known as the Euler approximations. The most notable of these approximations are Euler's method and the Euler-Maclaurin formula. He also facilitated the use of differential equations, in particular introducing the Euler-Mascheroni constant:One of Euler's more unusual interests was the application of mathematical ideas in music. In 1739 he wrote the Tentamen novae theoriae musicae, hoping to eventually integrate musical theory as part of mathematics. This part of his work, however, did not receive wide attention and was once described as too mathematical for musicians and too musical for mathematicians.[27][edit] Physics and astronomyEuler helped develop the Euler-Bernoulli beam equation, which became a cornerstone of engineering. Aside from successfully applying his analytic tools to problems in classical mechanics, Euler also applied these techniques to celestial problems. His work in astronomy was recognized by a number of Paris Academy Prizes over the course of his career. His accomplishments include determining with great accuracy the orbits of comets and other celestial bodies, understanding the nature of comets, and calculating the parallax of the sun. His calculations also contributed to the development of accurate longitude tables.[28]In addition, Euler made important contributions in optics. He disagreed with Newton's corpuscular theory of light in the Opticks, which was th

欧拉，L．(Euler，Leonhard)1707年4月15日生于瑞士巴塞尔；1783年9月18日卒于俄国圣彼得堡．数学、力学、天文学、物理学．

欧拉的祖先原来居住在瑞士东北部博登湖(康斯坦斯湖)畔的小城——林道．16世纪末，他的曾祖父汉斯·乔治·欧拉(HansGe Euler)带领全家顺莱茵河而下，迁居巴塞尔．这个家族几代人多为手艺劳动者．欧拉的父亲保罗·欧拉(Paul Euler)则毕业于巴塞尔大学神学系，是基督教新教的牧师．1706年，保罗与另一位牧师的女儿玛格丽特·勃鲁克(Margarete Brucker)结婚．翌年春，欧拉降生．1708年，保罗举家迁居巴塞尔附近的村庄——里亨(Riehen)．欧拉就在这田园静谧的乡村度过他的童年．

欧拉的父亲很喜爱数学．还在大学读书时，他就常去听雅格布·伯努利(Jakob Bernouli)的数学讲座．他亲自对欧拉进行包括数学在内的启蒙教育，并盼望儿子成为教门的后起之秀．贤惠的母亲为了使欧拉及时受到良好的学校教育，把他送到巴塞尔外祖母家生活了几年，入那里的一所文科中学念书．可是，这所学校不教数学．勤勉好学的欧拉独自随业余数学家J．伯克哈特(Bu-rckhart)学习．欧拉聪敏早慧，酷爱数学．他曾下苦功研读C．鲁道夫(Rudolf)的《代数学》(Algebra，1553)达数年之久．

1720年秋，年仅13岁的欧拉进了巴塞尔大学文科．当时，约翰·伯努利(Johann Bernoulli)任该校数学教授．他每天讲授基础数学课程，同时还给那些有兴趣的少数高材生开设更高深的数学、物理学讲座．欧拉是约翰·伯努利的最忠实的听众．他勤奋地学习所有的科目，但仍不满足．欧拉后来在自传中写道：“……不久，我找到了一个把自己介绍给著名的约翰·伯努利教授的机会．……他确实忙极了，因此断然拒绝给我个别授课．但是，他给了我许多更加宝贵的忠告，使我开始独立地学习更困难的数学著作，尽我所能努力地去研究它们．如果我遇到什么障碍或困难，他允许我每星期六下午自由地去找他，他总是和蔼地为我解答一切疑难……无疑，这是在数学学科上获得成功的最好的方法．”约翰的两个儿子尼吉拉·伯努利第二(Nikolaus Bernoulli II)、丹尼尔·伯努利(Daniel Bernoulli)，也成了欧拉的挚友．

1722年夏，欧拉在巴塞尔大学获学士学位．翌年，他又获哲学硕士学位．但授予这一学位是在1724年6月8日的会议上正式通告的．此前，他为了满足父亲的愿望，于1723年秋又入神学系．他在神学、希腊语、希伯莱语方面的学习并不成功．他仍把大部分时间花在数学上．尽管欧拉后来彻底放弃了当牧师的念头，但他却终生虔诚地信奉基督教．

欧拉18岁开始其数学研究生涯．1726年，他在《博学者》(Acta eruditorum)上发表了关于在有阻尼的介质中的等时曲线结构问题的文章．翌年，他研究弹道问题和船桅的最佳布置问题．后者是这年巴黎科学院的有奖征文课题．欧拉的论文虽未获得奖金，却得到了荣誉提名．此后，从1738年至1772年，欧拉共获得巴黎科学院12次奖金．

在瑞士，当时青年数学家的工作条件非常艰难，而俄国新组建的圣彼得堡科学院正在网罗人才．1725年秋，尼古拉第二和丹尼尔应聘前往俄国，并向当局力荐欧拉．翌年秋，欧拉在巴塞尔收到圣彼得堡科学院的聘书，请他去那里任生理学院士助理．然而，故土难离．欧拉开始用数学和力学方法研究生理学，同时仍期望在巴塞尔大学找到职位．恰好，这时该校有一位物理学教授病故，出现空席．欧拉向学校教授评议会递交了“论声音的物理学原理”(Dissertatio physica de sono，1727)的论文，争取教授资格．在激烈的竞争中，未满20岁的欧拉落选了．1727年4月5日欧拉告别故乡，5月24日抵达圣彼得堡．从那时起，欧拉的一生和他的科学工作都紧密地同圣彼得堡科学院和俄国联系在一起．他再也没有回过瑞士．但是，出于对祖国的深厚感情，欧拉始终保留了他的瑞士国籍．

欧拉到达圣彼得堡后，立即开始研究工作．不久，他获得了在真正擅长的领域从事研究工作的机会．1727年，他被任命为科学院数学部助理院士．他撰写的关于圣彼得堡科学院学术会议情况的调查报告，也开始在《圣彼得堡科学院汇刊(1727)》(me－ntarii Academiae scientiarum imperialis Petropolitanae)第二卷(St．Peter *** urg，1729)上发表．尽管那些年俄国政局动荡，圣彼得堡科学院还处在艰难岁月之中，但周围的学术气氛对发展欧拉的才华特别有利．那里聚集着一群杰出的科学家，如数学家C．哥德巴赫(Goldbach)、丹尼尔·伯努利，力学家J．赫尔曼(Hermann)，三角学家F．梅尔(Maier)，天文学家和地理学家J．N．德莱索(Delisle)等．他们同欧拉的个人情谊与共同的科学兴趣，使得彼此在科研工作中配合默契、相得益彰．1731年，欧拉成为物理学教授．1733年，丹尼尔·伯努利返回巴塞尔后，欧拉接替了他的数学教授职务，担负起领导科学院数学部的重任．这对亲密的朋友，以后通信40多年，促进了科学的竞争和发展．是年冬，欧拉和科学院预科学校的美术教师、瑞士画家G．葛塞尔(Gsell)的女儿柯黛林娜·葛塞尔(Katharina Gsell)结婚．翌年，其长子约翰·阿尔勃兰克(Johann Albrecht)降生．1740年，卡尔(Karl)出世．恬静、美满的家庭生活伴随着欧拉科学生涯的第一个黄金时期．

还在圣彼得堡科学院建成之初，俄国 *** 就责成它除了进行纯科学研究之外，还要培养、训练俄国科学家．为此，科学院建立了一所大学和预科学校，大学办了近50年，预科学校一直办到1805年．俄国 *** 还委托科学院制定俄国的地图，解决各种具体技术问题．欧拉积极参与并领导了科学院的这些工作．从1733年起，他和德莱索成功地进行了地图研究．从30年代中期开始，欧拉以极大的精力研究航海和船舶建造问题．这些问题对于俄国成为海上强国，是具有重大意义的．欧拉是各种技术委员会的成员，又担任科学院考试委员会委员．他既要为科学院的期刊撰稿、审稿，还要为附属大学、预科学校准备讲义、开设讲座，工作十分忙碌．然而，他的主要成就是在数学研究上．

在圣彼得堡的头14年间，欧拉以无可匹敌的工作效率在分析学、数论和力学等领域作出许多辉煌的发现．截止1741年，他完成了近90种著作，公开发表了55种，其中包括1936年完成的两卷本《力学或运动科学的分析解说》(Mechanica sive motus scie－ntia *** ytice exposita)．他的研究硕果累累，声望与日俱增，赢得了各国科学家的尊敬．欧拉从前的导师约翰·伯努利早在1728年的信中就称他为“最善于学习和最有天赋的科学家”，1737年又称他是“最驰名和最博学的数学家”．欧拉后来谦逊地说：“……我和所有其他有幸在俄罗斯帝国科学院工作过一段时间的人都不能不承认，我们应把所获得的一切和所掌握的一切归功于我们在那儿拥有的有利条件．”

由于过度的劳累，1738年，欧拉在一场疾病之后右眼失明了．但他仍旧坚韧不拔地工作．他热爱科学，热爱生活．他非常喜欢孩子(他一生有过13个孩子，除了5个以外都夭亡了)．写论文时往往膝上抱着婴儿，大一点的孩子则绕膝戏耍．他酷爱音乐．在撰写艰深的数学论文时，他的“那种轻松自如是令人难以置信的”．

1740年秋冬，俄国政局再度骤变，形势极不安定．欧拉此时与圣彼得堡科学院粗鲁、专横的顾问J．D．舒马赫尔(Schuma－cher)也产生了磨擦．为了使自己的科学事业不受损害，欧拉希望寻求新的出路．恰好这年夏天继承了普鲁士王位的腓特烈(Frederick)大帝决定重振柏林科学院，他热情邀请欧拉去柏林工作．欧拉接受了邀请．1741年6月19日，欧拉启程离开圣彼得堡，7月25日抵达柏林．

柏林科学院是在G．W．莱布尼茨(Leibniz)的大力推动下于1700年创立的，后来它衰落了．欧拉在柏林25年．那时，他精力旺盛，不知疲倦地工作．他鼎力襄助院长P．莫佩蒂(Maupe－rtuis)，在恢复和发展柏林科学院的工作中发挥了重大作用．

在柏林，欧拉任科学院数学部主任．他是科学院的院务委员、图书馆顾问和学术著作出版委员会委员．他还担负了其他许多行政事务，如管理天文台和植物园，提出人事安排，监督财务，以及历书和地图的出版工作．当院长莫佩蒂外出期间，欧拉代理院长．1759年莫佩蒂去世后，虽然没有正式任命欧拉为院长，但他实际上一直领导着科学院的工作．欧拉和莫佩蒂的友谊，使欧拉能对柏林科学院的一切活动，尤其是在选拔院士方面，施加巨大影响．

欧拉还担任过普鲁士 *** 关于安全保险、退休金和抚恤金等问题的顾问，并为腓特烈大帝了解火炮方面的最新成果(1745年)，设计改造费诺运河(1749年)，曾主管普鲁士皇家别墅水力系统管系和泵系的设计工作．他和德国许多大学的教授保持广泛联系，对大学教科书的编写和数学教学起了促进作用．

在此期间，欧拉一直保留着圣彼得堡科学院院士资格，领取年俸．受该院委托，欧拉为其编纂院刊的数学部分，介绍西欧的科学思想，购买书籍和科学仪器，同时推荐研究人员和课题．他在培养俄国的科学人才方面起了重大的作用．他还经常把自己的学术论文寄往圣彼得堡．他的论文约有一半是用拉丁文在圣彼得堡发表的，另一半用法文在柏林出版．另外，他还先后当选为伦敦皇家学会会员(1749年)、巴塞尔物理数学会会员(1753年)及巴黎科学院院士(1755年)．

柏林时期是欧拉科学研究的鼎盛时期，其研究范围迅速扩大．他与J．K．达朗贝尔(D’Alembert)和丹尼尔·伯努利展开的学术竞争奠定了数学物理的基础；他与A．克莱罗(Clairaut)和达朗贝尔一起推进了月球和行星运动理论的研究．与此同时，欧拉详尽地阐述了刚体运动理论，创立了流体动力学的数学模型，深入地研究了光学和电磁学，以及消色差折射望远镜等许多技术问题．他写了大约380篇(部)论著，出版了其中的275种．内有分析学、力学、天文学、火炮和弹道学、船舶建造和航海等方面的几部巨著，其中1748年出版的两卷集著作《无穷分析引论》(Introdu－ctio in *** ysin infinitorum)在数学史上占有十分重要的地位．

欧拉参加了18世纪40年代关于莱布尼茨和C．沃尔夫(Wolff)的单子论的激烈辩论．欧拉在自然哲学方面接近R．笛卡儿(Descartes)的机械唯物主义，他和莫佩蒂都是单子论的“劲敌”．1751年，S．柯尼格(K nig)以耸入听闻的新论据，发表了几篇批评莫佩蒂的“最小作用原理”的文章．欧拉翌年撰文反驳，并同莫佩蒂用更浅显的语言来解释最小作用原理．除了这些哲学和科学的争论以外，对于数学的发展来说，欧拉参加了另外三场更重要的争论：与达朗贝尔关于负数对数的争论；与达朗贝尔、丹尼尔·伯努利关于求解弦振动方程的争论；与J．多伦(Dollond)关于光学问题的争论．

1759年莫佩蒂去世后，欧拉在普鲁士国王的直接监督之下负责柏林科学院的工作．欧拉同腓特烈大帝之间的关系并不融洽．1763年，当获悉腓特烈想把院长的职务授予达朗贝尔后，欧拉开始考虑离开柏林．圣彼得堡科学院立即遵照卡捷琳娜(Catherine)女皇旨意寄给欧拉聘书，诚挚希望他重返圣彼得堡．但是达朗贝尔拒绝长期移居柏林，使腓特烈一度推迟就院长入选作最后的决定．“七年战争”之后，腓特烈粗暴地干涉欧拉对柏林科学院的事务管理．1765年至1766年，在财政问题上，欧拉与腓特烈之间引发了一场严重的冲突．他恳请普鲁士国王同意他离开柏林．1766年7月28日，欧拉重返圣彼得堡，他的三个儿子和两个女儿也回到俄国，伴于身旁．

欧拉的家安置在涅瓦河畔离圣彼得堡科学院不远的舒适之处．他的长子阿尔勃兰克这年成为科学院院士、物理学部教授，三年后又被任命为科学院的终身秘书．1766年，欧拉父子还同时当选为科学院执行委员．欧拉的工作是顺心的，然而，厄运也接二连三地向他袭来．回到圣彼得堡不久，一场疾病使欧拉的左眼几乎完全失明．这时，他已经不能再看书了．只能勉强看清大字体的提纲，用粉笔在石板上写很大的字母．1771年，欧拉双目完全失明．这一年，圣彼得堡的一场特大火灾又使欧拉的住所和财产付之一炬，仅抢救出欧拉及其手稿． 1773年 11月，欧拉夫人柯黛琳娜去世．三年后，她同父异母的妹妹莎洛姆·葛塞尔(SalomeGsell)成为欧拉的第二个妻子．

欧拉晚年遭受双目失明、火灾和丧偶的沉重打击，他仍不屈不挠地奋斗，丝毫没有减少科学活动．在他的周围，有一群主动的合作者，包括：他的儿子阿尔勃兰克和克利斯朵夫(Christoph)； W．L．克拉夫特(Krafft)院士和A．J．莱克塞尔(Lexell)院士；两位年轻的助手N．富斯(Fuss)和M．E．哥洛文(Golovin)．欧拉和他们一起讨论著作出版的总计划，有时简要地口述研究成果．他们则使欧拉的设想变得更加明确，有时还为欧拉的论著编纂例证．据富斯自己统计，七年内他为欧拉整理论文250篇，哥洛文整理了70篇．欧拉非常尊重别人的劳动．1772年出版的《月球运动理论和计算方法》(Theoria motuum lunae， nova methodoPertractata)是在阿尔勃兰克、克拉夫特和莱克塞尔的帮助下完成的，欧拉把他们的名字都印在这本书的扉页上．

重返圣彼得堡后，欧拉的著作出版得更多．他的论著几乎有一半是1765年以后出版的．其中，包括他的三卷本《积分学原理》(Institutiones calculi integralis， 1768—1770)和《关于物理学和哲学问题给德韶公主的信》(Lettresà une princesse d’AllemagneSur divers sujets de physique et de philosophie， 1768—1772)．前者的最重要部分是在柏林完成的．后者产生于欧拉给普鲁士国王的侄女的授课内容．这本文笔优雅、通俗易懂的科学著作出版后，很快就在欧洲翻译成多种文字，畅销各国，经久不衰．欧拉是历史上著作最多的数学家．

欧拉的多产也得益于他一生非凡的记忆力和心算能力．他70岁时还能准确地回忆起他年轻时读的荷马史诗《伊利亚特》(Iliad)每页的头行和末行．他能够背诵出当时数学领域的主要公式和前100个素数的前六次幂．M．孔多塞(Condorcet)讲述过一个例子，足以说明欧拉的心算本领：欧拉的两个学生把一个颇为复杂的收敛级数的17项相加起来，算到第50位数字时因相差一个单位而产生了争执．为了确定谁正确，欧拉对整个计算过程进行心算，最后把错误找出来了．

1783年9月18日，欧拉跟往常一样，度过了这一天的前半天．他给孙女辅导了一节数学课，用粉笔在两块黑板上作了有关气球运动的计算，然后同莱克塞尔和富斯讨论两年前F．W．赫歇尔(Herschel)发现的天王星的轨道计算．大约下午5时，欧拉突然脑出血，他只说了一句“我要死了”，就失去知觉．晚上11时，欧拉停上了呼吸．

欧拉逝世不久，富斯和孔多塞分别在圣彼得堡科学院和巴黎科学院的追悼会上致悼词．孔多塞在悼词的结尾耐人寻味地说：“欧拉停止了生命，也停止了计算．”

欧拉的菩作在他生前已经有多种输入了中国，其中包括著名的、1748年初版本的《无穷分析引论》．这些著作有一部分曾藏于北京北堂图书馆．它们是18世纪40年代由圣彼得堡科学院赠给北京耶稣会或北京南堂耶稣学院的．这也是中俄数学早期交流的一个明证．19世纪70年代，清代数学家华蘅芳和英国人傅兰雅(John Fryer)合译的《代数术》(1873)和《微积溯源》(1874)，都介绍了欧拉学说．在此前后，李善兰和伟烈亚力(Alexander Wylie)合译的《代数学》(1859)、赵元益译的《光学》(1876)、黄钟骏的《畴人传四编》(1898)等著作也记载了欧拉学说或欧拉的事迹(详见文献［32］)．中国人民是很早就熟悉欧拉的．欧拉不仅属于瑞士，也属于整个文明世界．著名数学史家A．П．尤什凯维奇(Юшкевич)说，人们可以借B．丰唐内尔(Fontenelle)评价莱布尼茨的话来评价欧拉，“他是乐于看到自己提供的种子在别人的植物园里开花的人．”

在欧拉的全部科学贡献中，其数学成就占据最突出的地位．他在力学、天文学、物理学等方面也闪现着耀眼的光芒．

（转自《数学家传记大辞典》，张洪光）

欧拉 一数学欧拉（Leonhard Euler 公元1707-1783年） 1707年出生在瑞士的巴塞尔（Basel）城，13岁就进巴塞尔大学读书，得到当时最有名的数学家约翰·伯努利（Johann Bernoulli，1667-1748年）的精心指导．欧拉渊博的知识，无穷无尽的创作精力和空前丰富的著作，都是令人惊叹不已的！他从19岁开始发表论文，直到76岁，半个多世纪写下了浩如烟海的书籍和论文．到今几乎每一个数学领域都可以看到欧拉的名字，从初等几何的欧拉线，多面体的欧拉定理，立体解析几何的欧拉变换公式，四次方程的欧拉解法到数论中的欧拉函数，微分方程的欧拉方程，级数论的欧拉常数，变分学的欧拉方程，复变函数的欧拉公式等等，数也数不清．他对数学分析的贡献更独具匠心，《无穷小分析引论》一书便是他划时代的代表作，当时数学家们称他为"分析学的化身"．欧拉是科学史上最多产的一位杰出的数学家，据统计他那不倦的一生，共写下了886本书籍和论文，其中分析、代数、数论占40%，几何占18%，物理和力学占28%，天文学占11%，弹道学、航海学、建筑学等占3%，彼得堡科学院为了整理他的著作，足足忙碌了四十七年．欧拉著作的惊人多产并不是偶然的，他可以在任何不良的环境中工作，他常常抱着孩子在膝上完成论文，也不顾孩子在旁边喧哗．他那顽强的毅力和孜孜不倦的治学精神，使他在双目失明以后， 也没有停止对数学的研究，在失明后的17年间，他还口述了几本书和400篇左右的论文．19世纪伟大数学家高斯（Gauss，1777-1855年）曾说："研究欧拉的著作永远是了解数学的最好方法．"欧拉的父亲保罗·欧拉（Paul Euler）也是一个数学家，原希望小欧拉学神学，同时教他一点数学．由于小欧拉的才人和异常勤奋的精神，又受到约翰·伯努利的赏识和特殊指导，当他在19岁时写了一篇关于船桅的论文，获得巴黎科学院的奖的奖金后，他的父亲就不再反对他攻读数学了．1725年约翰·伯努利的儿子丹尼尔·伯努利赴俄国，并向沙皇喀德林一世推荐了欧拉，这样，在1727年5月17日欧拉来到了彼得堡．1733年，年仅26岁的欧拉担任了彼得堡科学院数学教授．1735年，欧拉解决了一个天文学的难题（计算慧星轨道），这个问题经几个著名数学家几个月的努力才得到解决，而欧拉却用自己发明的方法，三天便完成了．然而过度的工作使他得了眼病，并且不幸右眼失明了，这时他才28岁．1741年欧拉应普鲁士彼德烈大帝的邀请，到柏林担任科学院物理数学所所长，直到1766年，后来在沙皇喀德林二世的诚恳敦聘下重回彼得堡，不料没有多久，左眼视力衰退，最后完全失明．不幸的事情接踵而来，1771年彼得堡的大火灾殃及欧拉住宅，带病而失明的64岁的欧拉被围困在大火中，虽然他被别人从火海中救了出来，但他的书房和大量研究成果全部化为灰烬了．沉重的打击，仍然没有使欧拉倒下，他发誓要把损失夺回来．在他完全失明之前，还能朦胧地看见东西，他抓紧这最后的时刻，在一块大黑板上疾书他发现的公式，然后口述其内容，由他的学生特别是大儿子A·欧拉（数学家和物理学家）笔录．欧拉完全失明以后，仍然以惊人的毅力与黑暗搏斗，凭着记忆和心算进行研究，直到逝世，竟达17年之久．欧拉的记忆力和心算能力是罕见的，他能够复述年青时代笔记的内容，心算并不限于简单的运算，高等数学一样可以用心算去完成．有一个例子足以说明他的本领，欧拉的两个学生把一个复杂的收敛级数的17项加起来，算到第50位数字，两人相差一个单位，欧拉为了确定究竟谁对，用心算进行全部运算，最后把错误找了出来．欧拉在失明的17年中；还解决了使牛顿头痛的月离问题和很多复杂的分析问题．欧拉的风格是很高的，拉格朗日是稍后于欧拉的大数学家，从19岁起和欧拉通信，讨论等周问题的一般解法，这引起变分法的诞生．等周问题是欧拉多年来苦心考虑的问题，拉格朗日的解法，博得欧拉的热烈赞扬，1759年10月2日欧拉在回信中盛称拉格朗日的成就，并谦虚地压下自己在这方面较不成熟的作品暂不发表，使年青的拉格朗日的工作得以发表和流传，并赢得巨大的声誉．他晚年的时候，欧洲所有的数学家都把他当作老师，著名数学家拉普拉斯（Laplace）曾说过："欧拉是我们的导师．" 欧拉充沛的精力保持到最后一刻，1783年9月18日下午，欧拉为了庆祝他计算气球上升定律的成功，请朋友们吃饭，那时天王星刚发现不久，欧拉写出了计算天王星轨道的要领，还和他的孙子逗笑，喝完茶后，突然疾病发作，烟斗从手中落下，口里喃喃地说："我死了"，欧拉终于"停止了生命和计算"．欧拉的一生，是为数学发展而奋斗的一生，他那杰出的智慧，顽强的毅力，孜孜不倦的奋斗精神和高尚的科学道德，永远是值得我们学习的．〔欧拉还创设了许多数学符号，例如π（1736年），i（1777年），e（1748年），sin和cos（1748年），tg（1753年），△x（1755年），∑（1755年），f(x)（1734年）等．欧拉是18世纪最优秀的数学家，也是历史上最伟大的数学家之一。 1707年4月15日，欧拉诞生于瑞士的巴塞尔。小时候他就特别喜欢数学，不满10岁就开始自学《代数学》。这本书连他的几位老师都没读过，可小欧拉却读得津津有味，遇到不懂的地方，就用笔作个记号，事后再向别人请教。1720年，13岁的欧拉靠自己的努力考入了巴塞尔大学。这在当时是个奇迹，曾轰动了数学界。小欧拉是这所大学，也是整个瑞士大学校园里年龄最小的学生。 欧拉大学毕业后到了俄国的首都彼得堡。在他26岁时，担任了彼得堡科学院的数学教授。1735年，年仅28岁的欧拉，由于要计算一个彗星的轨道，奋战了三天三夜，最后用他自己发明的新方法圆满地解决了这个难题。过度的工作，使欧拉得了眼病，就在那一年他右眼失明了。疾病没有吓倒他，他更加勤奋地工作，写出了几百篇论文，大量出色的研究成果，使他在欧洲科学界享有很高的声望。在他59岁时，仅剩的一只左眼视力衰退，只能模糊地看到物体，最后双目失明。但是工作就是他的生命，他决心用加倍的努力，来回答命运对他的挑战。眼睛看不见，他就口述，由他的儿子记录，继续写作。欧拉凭着他惊人的记忆力和心算能力，在黑暗中整整工作了17年。 1783年9月18日，在不久前才刚计算完气球上升定律的欧拉，在兴奋中突然停止了呼吸，享年76岁。欧拉生活、工作过的三个国家：瑞士、俄国、德国，都把欧拉作为自己的数学家，为有他而感到骄傲。二科学欧拉，匈牙利裔美国人，由于他发现了使碳阳离子保持稳定的方法，在碳正离子化学方面的研究而获奖。研究范畴属有机化学，在碳氢化合物方面的成就尤其卓著。早在60年代就发表大量研究报告并享誉国际科学界，是化学领域里的一位重要人物，他的这项基础研究成果对炼油技术作出了重大贡献，这项成果彻底改变了对碳阳离子这种极不稳定的碳氢化合物的研究方式，揭开了人们对阳离子结构认识的新一页，更为重要的是他的发现可广泛用于从提高炼油效率，生产无铅汽油到改善塑料制品质量及研究制造新药等各个行业，对改善人民生活起着重要作用。