这个不用全部翻译的，只要选择自己需要的内容翻译。
翻译的外文文献可以是一篇，也可以是两篇，但英文字符要求不少于2万。选定外文文献后先给指导老师看，得到老师的确认通过后方可翻译。
翻译的外文文献应主要选自学术期刊、学术会议的文章、有关著作及其他相关材料，应与毕业论文(设计)主题相关，并在中文译文首页用“脚注”形式注明原文作者及出处，外文原文后应附中文译文。
扩展资料：
外文翻译需要注意的问题
1、外文文献的出处不要翻译成中文，且写在中文译文的右上角（不是放在页眉处）；会议要求：名称、地点、年份、卷（期），等 。
2、作者姓名以及作者的工作单位也不用必须翻译。
3、abstract翻译成“摘要”，不要翻译成“文章摘要”等其他词语。
4、Key words翻译成“关键词” 。
5、introduction 翻译成“引言”(不是导言)。
6、注意排版格式，都是单排版，行距，字号小4号，等（按照格式要求）。
7、各节的标号I、II等可以直接使用，不要再翻译成“第一部分”“第二部分”，等。
8、里面的图可以拷贝粘贴，但要将图标、横纵指标的英文标注翻译成中文。
9、里面的公式、表不可以拷贝粘贴，要自己重新录入、重新画表格。
参考资料：百度百科-毕业论文
。Hartog,年“分布式温度传感器基于Liquid-Core光纤国立LT-1:498-509光波1995,16(2)。2。Barnoski .和詹森,丁镛,1976年,“Fiber-Waveguides调查:设计了一种新颖的技术,李波。衰减特性”Opt.,15:2112-2115。3。论文Dakin苏达权等,1985,“温”斯托曼派发陈鹰。第三个智力。在选择之。光纤传感器,post-deadline圣地牙哥,2月(纸)4。Hartog等,.高庆宇,1985年,“分布式温度传感在实芯纤维”电子。21:1061-3(1)。5。Farries,M。C和罗杰斯,一个。J,刺激、分布式传感使用984路光纤拉曼相互作用,陈鹰。第二智力。在光纤传感器数值,pp121-32斯图加特,纸。6。Dakin欢欣,1987年,“分布式光纤温度传感器使用光学克尔效应”,陈鹰。变动,纤维光学传感器的798艺术,pp149-156 II。7。Hartog,,“分布式光纤温度传感器技术和应用的电力工业”,电力工程,杂志6月刊上。8。1995年,. Hartog光纤温度传感器监测Wakamatsu”,“现代电力系统,pp25-28 2月刊上。
翻译是在准确、通顺的基础上，把一种语言信息转变成另一种语言信息的行为。翻译是将一种相对陌生的表达方式，转换成相对熟悉的表达方式的过程。那英文论文翻译要怎么做?一、读懂文章意思读懂文章才能翻译，否则就是乱翻译，势必造成译文的可读性差。在翻译时，译者不但要看懂，而且要进一步查实作者的写作，要细细地查看参考文献，从中找出其不足。二、良好的语言驾驭能力发表论文关键是内容。而内容方面关键靠理清文章结构，及主旨的强化。要准确表达文章的主旨，就要具备相当的语言驾驭能力。要解决这一问题，必须克服汉语式英语这一难题。其诀窍就是多看参考文献，力求准确表达作者的意思。经过长期的积累，力求语言的简洁及准确性。对于语言的基本要求便是要通顺。论文翻译语言必须通顺易懂，符合规范，用词造句应符合本族语的习惯，要用科学的、民族的、大众的语言，以求通顺易懂。不应有结构混乱、文理不通、逐词死译和生硬晦涩等现象。三、论文发表及审稿经验要提供专业、准确的译文，必须具备论文发表及审稿经验。这样，一则可以以审稿人的身份对文章的不足加以修改，并及时与作者进行沟通，修改写作思路。再者，熟悉论文发表的工作人员明确怎样的论文才会被接收?该如何回复审稿人的意见，并促成文章的快速发表。四、理清文章的结构，强化主旨根据文章结构直接按照作者的行文进行翻译的方式，为促成文章的尽快发表，工作人员非常有必要与作者进行学术上的沟通，比如文章的撰写思路，如何突出文章的研究意义，通过何种方式突出文章的结果，如何强化文章的主旨。这些是论文翻译工作者必须掌握的要点。这是体现翻译工作者水平的一大环节。高水平的翻译工作者会借助既往发表的文献及本研究所得数据整理出一个写作思路，并与作者进行沟通。定下文章的写作思路后，才能进行文章的撰写及翻译。
根据自己在编审医学论文英文摘要工作中的实际经验，总结和归纳在翻译医学论文摘要时应注重的问题及使用的方法、策略，重点论述医学论文英文摘要的写作格式、文章标题的表达方式、语态和时态的使用、长难句翻译等。医学论文；英语摘要；写作；翻译为繁荣医学教育，提高医疗水平，传播医学知识，促进同国外的医学交流，推动医学科学的进步，我国目前已出版发行了数百种医学期刊。为了方便论文的检索和查阅，保持同国外医学期刊的一致性，医学论文大多要求书写中、英文摘要。笔者在医学期刊的英文编辑工作中发现，相当一部分摘要的书写不够规范，部分在碰到长句及疑难句子时就不知从何下手，有的将检索的外文资料生搬硬抄，同自己的原文完全不对应。笔者特撰写此文，以期对提高广大医务工书写英文摘要的水平、提高医学论文的质量有所帮助。1英文摘要的写作格式医学论文摘要的格式目前主要采用结构式摘要，它是由加拿大McMaster大学临床流行病学和生物统计学教授Haynes博士于1990年4月首先提出的。而几乎在同年，美国《内科学纪事》。评价肿瘤浆膜外侵犯的敏感性和特异性分别为99%和。结论：SCT扫描对结、直肠癌的术前分期有重要价值，有助于判定肿瘤浆膜外侵犯及区域淋巴结和远处转移情况。其对应的英文摘要为：Objective：：Fifty？：.上述摘要中英文对应准确，叙述简练，基本上概括了全文的主要内容，便于专家和编辑的审稿和校对，也便于医务工以及普通读者的查阅和检索。2英文摘要写作与翻译应注重的问题众所周知，任何英文书面材料只有用英文思维、构思、写作，才可能成为比较地道的英文文章，医学论文摘要也是这样，最好直接用英文书写。然而笔者在实际工作中以及同论文的交流中了解到，80%以上的医务工不能做到这一点。他们基本上要首先写出中文摘要，再按照中文内容翻译成英文。在写作和翻译的过程中，他们不可避免地都会犯下一些错误。下面将重点讨论摘要写作与翻译中应注重的问题。1文章标题文章标题具备信息功能、祈使功能、美感功能和检索功能。医学论文的标题还有它自己的特点，即有较多的专业术语和较长的字数。对于它们的翻译，要忠实于原文，一般都采用直译方法，并且要注重各成分之间的关系。请看下例：“针刺对冠心病心绞痛患者左心功能状态的影响”翻译：Theacupunctureeffectonleftventricularfunctioninpatientswithcoronaryheartdiseaseandanginapectoris分析：“影响”为中心词，但它在本文中的意思为“疗效”，因为“针刺”是种治疗疾病的方法，“针刺的疗效”可译为“acupunctureeffect”。“左心功能状态”是表类属的定语，应紧跟“影响”，“患者”修饰“左心功能状态”，“冠心病心绞痛”修饰“患者”。层层修饰关系在译文中均以介词连接，译文简洁而明晰。2语态在英语中，被动语态的使用远不及主动语态广泛。然而，在翻译医学论文摘要时，却经常采用第三人称的被动语态。这是因为医学研究着重于客观事物和过程的描述，使得整项活动更显出科学性。同时，被动语态的句子在结构上有较大的调节余地，有利于采用必要的修辞手段，扩大句子的信息量，从而突出重要的概念、问题、事实、结论等内容。请看下例：“采用Westernblotting技术检测37例食管鳞状细胞癌组织、癌旁组织、区域淋巴结和相应正常食管组织中P73蛋白的表达，并探讨与食管临床病理特征的关系。”翻译：TheexpressionofP73proteinwasdetectedbyWesternblottingin37casesofesophagealtumortissuesregionallymphnodesandmatchedesophagealnormaltissues#27577_html27577_html’>3时态时态是大多数碰到的一大难题，他们不知何时该用何种时态。有时全文从头到尾只用一种时态，或几种时态杂乱交错，给人不知所云的感觉。笔者通过多年对医学论文英文摘要的加工、翻译发现ofwhom78hadpreoperativeradiotherapy16combinationofbrachytherapyandradicaloperation英语句子建构在形式主轴上。也就是说，虽然句子是表达完整意义的语言单位，汉语强调的是意义，不太强调句子结构，许多句子没有主语，还有的句子主语不明显，但意义是明确的；而英语句子非凡强调句子结构，绝大多数句子需要主语和谓语。这就要求在汉译英过程中注重句意的转换，学会抓找中心词和使用英语中的各个关联词。请看下列例子：例1：“以BPDE诱导恶性转化的人支气管上皮细胞株16HBE为模型，采用cDNA代表性差异分析方法，比较转化细胞及正常对照细胞间基因表达的差异，分离恶变细胞中差异表达的cDNA片段。”翻译：.分析：在中文原句中，出现了“以……”、“采用……”以及“比较……”、“分离……”这两个看似并列的机构就会不知所云。因此，根据句意和英语的句子结构，将原文分成两层意思，按照两个句子去翻译。在第一层意思中，“上皮细胞株”在句中是中心词，但在实际翻译中，应通过所有格形式将“恶性转化”处理为中心词。翻译时，将它们的位置颠倒过来，并且为了保持和中文“以…”结构相一致，使用了被动语态。第二层意思中，“cDNA代表性差异分析方法”是中心词。其他结构按照英文习惯出现，层次分明，出落自然，毫无累赘之感。例2：“这些感受器是神经末梢，它们嵌入血管壁，根据该血管扩张的程度发出冲动。”翻译：Thesereceptorsarenerveendingsthatdischargeimpulsesaccordingtotheextentofstretchinthewallofthevesselsinwhichtheyareimbedded.分析：原文虽然不是太长就显得很幼稚。因此即用一个主句带上一个定语从句这不仅符合英文习惯希望能对进行医学论文英语摘要写作的医务工有所启发。：697PENROSEAM1998：12312PICKETTNA1996：6568.陈宏薇.新实用汉译英教程武汉：湖北教育出版社2757html2757html
Objective To evaluate acute and long2term angiographic and clinical outcomes of longstent or multiple overlapped stents (length ≥ 20 mm) implantation for diffuse atherosclerosis lesions inoctogenarians. Methods Long stent or multiple overlapped stents implantation was performed on 111diffuse native coronary lesions ( Group O : 47 lesions in 44 octogenarians ; Group Y: 64 lesions in 58 patientsaged under 60) . Baseline demographic , lesion characteristic , angiographic and procedural details weresimilar in these 2 groups. Six2month clinical and angiographic follow2up was completed in all cases. In2hospital and long2term outcomes were evaluated. Results Procedure success was 100 %for both had in2hospital major adverse cardiac events (MACE) . There was no significant difference inangiographic binary restenosis ( ≥50 % diameter stenosis) rate between the groups at follow2up ( Group Ovs. Group Y, 1218 % vs1 1019 % at 32month , 2918 % vs. 2616 % at 62month , P > 0105) . The rates oftarget lesion revascularization and MACE at follow2up were less in Group Y, but it showed no statisticalsignificance (718 % vs. 1016 % and 816 % vs. 1114 % at 32month , 1516 % vs. 2314 % and 2017 % % at 62month , respectively , P > 0105) . Conclusions Long stent implantation for diffuse lesionsin octogenarians appears safe and feasible , with high procedural success and favorable long2term outcomes.
翻译软件仅供参考，不能过分依赖，想要高质量的翻译还是需要专业的翻译人士和平台，个人还是比较信赖北京译顶科技
[Abstract] Objective To investigate the "teacher-student role reversal Law" teaching method in clinical medicine professional "rehabilitation medicine," teaching effectiveness. Methods of clinical medicine at school 96 students in group teaching, in which 48 students in the experimental group a "teacher-student role reversal Law" teaching methods in the control group 48 students using traditional teaching methods. Two groups of students after school at the same time a theoretical examination and questionnaire. Results In the experimental group of students the theory of test scores than the control group (p <), and the two groups of students the theory of the good test scores difference was statistically significant (p <); experimental group of students interest and motivation in learning, knowledge, memory and understanding, self-learning ability and problem-solving ability better than the control group (p <). Conclusion "teacher-student role reversal Law" teaching methods in the "rehabilitation medicine," an effective method in teaching.[Key words] the roles were reversed; teaching methods; Rehabilitation Medicine; AnalysisAbstract spastic cerebral palsy is the most common form of cerebral palsy, their motor dysfunction is manifested mainly delayed motor development, abnormal posture, tendon hyperreflexia, increased muscle tone and so on. Based on principles of Bobath therapy, Bobath ball in the treatment of spastic cerebral palsy children in motor dysfunction could play a very good words spastic cerebral palsy; motor function; Bobath Ball1，“师生角色互换法”教学法在《康复医学》教学中的应用探析 2，Bobath球在改善痉挛型脑瘫运动功能障碍中的应用"Teacher-student role reversal Law" Approach in the "rehabilitation medicine," Teaching of Analysis, Bobath ball with spastic cerebral palsy in improving motor dysfunction of
Objective To evaluate acute and long2term angiographic and clinical outcomes of longstent or multiple overlapped stents (length ≥ 20 mm) implantation for diffuse atherosclerosis lesions inoctogenarians. Methods Long stent or multiple overlapped stents implantation was performed on 111diffuse native coronary lesions ( Group O : 47 lesions in 44 octogenarians ; Group Y: 64 lesions in 58 patientsaged under 60) . Baseline demographic , lesion characteristic , angiographic and procedural details weresimilar in these 2 groups. Six2month clinical and angiographic follow2up was completed in all cases. In2hospital and long2term outcomes were evaluated. Results Procedure success was 100 %for both had in2hospital major adverse cardiac events (MACE) . There was no significant difference inangiographic binary restenosis ( ≥50 % diameter stenosis) rate between the groups at follow2up ( Group Ovs. Group Y, 1218 % vs1 1019 % at 32month , 2918 % vs. 2616 % at 62month , P > 0105) . The rates oftarget lesion revascularization and MACE at follow2up were less in Group Y, but it showed no statisticalsignificance (718 % vs. 1016 % and 816 % vs. 1114 % at 32month , 1516 % vs. 2314 % and 2017 % % at 62month , respectively , P > 0105) . Conclusions Long stent implantation for diffuse lesionsin octogenarians appears safe and feasible , with high procedural success and favorable long2term outcomes.
这个简单啊。你可以到PubMed中下载。输入关键词，然后检索即可。
北京杏林译园翻译中心是中国最专业的翻译公司之一，专门从事医学药学生命科学领域专业翻译服务，致力于打造中国专业翻译服务第一品牌。公司从成立至今，在公司全体同仁的共同努力下，以保证质量和效率为前提，不断快速稳步的健康发展。我们的医药专业翻译人员大多毕业于国内外著名高校，并在医药翻译领域有丰富的翻译经验。公司的所有医药翻译人员都经过严格测试，多数医药翻译有出国留学或工作经历，且具良好的医药翻译能力。我公司医药翻译项目组成员对行业发展、专业术语等都有深入的把握，我们鼎力为每位客户提供质量最高、速度最快的医药翻译及本地化服务。依靠严格的质量控制体系、规范化的运作流程和独特的审核标准我们已为各组织、机构、全球性公司提供了高水准的医药翻译，并签定了长期合作协议。北京杏林译园翻译秉承“专业诚信、追求卓越”的服务理念，为国内外客户提供一流的专业翻译服务。严格执行质量控制体系、规范的业务流程与审核标准，为每一位客户提供专业、优质、高效的翻译服务。因此，我们是每一位客户值得信赖的长期合作伙伴。选择北京杏林译园翻译，就是选择信赖
这种比较专业性的好的免费的论文在网上很难找,就算找的应该也不是完整的,特别是免费的,建议你去学校图书馆阅览室,你不有阅览证吗?那里很多,选择性多呀,含金量也比较高.
心内科的英文是cardiology。
内科学basis of internal medicine; medical jaundice; molecular medicine
内科病internal disease
内科病房internal medicine ward; medical ward
The leading subjects of medicine at the provincial level.
心内科烧伤科儿科心理学。
The construction of network education in cardiology teaching.
心内科教学中的网络教育探讨。
A heart doctor with the foundation will be one of the lead investigators.
基金会的一位心内科医生将担任考察的负责人之一。
心内科常见疾病：
心内科，即心血管内科，是各级医院大内科为了诊疗心血管血管疾病而设置的一个临床科室。
1、高血压：成年人中患病率27%，＞65岁老年人高血压患病率达50%。高血压分为原发性高血压、继发性高血压。出现血压升高应该及时到心内科就诊，明确病因；
2、冠状动脉粥样硬化性心脏病：包括心绞痛、心肌梗死，属于心内科常见疾病；
3、血管病变：如周围血管病变；
4、心律失常：包括缓慢性心律失常、快速性心律失常。缓慢性心律失常包括窦性心动过缓、房室传导阻滞、窦性停搏等。快速心律失常包括房性心动过速、室性心动过速、心房颤动等；
5、心脏瓣膜病、心肌病变：包括扩张型心肌病、肥厚型心肌病、限制型心肌病；
6、心内膜炎、心肌炎等。
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Chronic kidney disease is a risk factor for cardiovascular diseaseChronic kidney disease (CKD) is a widespread concern of public health, the incidence increased gradually, at the same time brought about serious consequences and problems. We note that the patient's renal failure is dialysis and kidney transplantation, but few scholars concerned about CKD and cardiovascular disease (CVD) relationship. Now that CKD with CVD-related, and progress than acute renal failure more likely die of cardiovascular disease, CVD is the most common CKD the cause of death [1]. Recognized that CKD is a risk factor for CVD that is very important. Only in this way will it be possible to conduct an in-depth, and then search for the prevention and treatment of related measures to ensure greater benefits for these patients. CKD is defined as biopsy or the markers of renal damage confirmed> 3 months, or GFR <60ml / ()> 3 months. Cause of disease and the general based on credits for the diabetic and non-diabetic renal disease and transplantation. Renal dysfunction by renal biopsy or related markers such as proteinuria, abnormal urinary sediment, abnormal imaging to diagnose and so on. Proteinuria is not only to prove the existence of CKD, renal disease may also become an important basis for the type of diagnosis and the severity of kidney disease and cardiovascular disease-related. Urinary albumin and creatinine ratio or total protein and creatinine ratio can be used to assess proteinuria. GFR <60ml / () renal damage as a critical value, which indicates the level of GFR is often the beginning of renal failure, including increased incidence of cardiovascular disease and the degree of risk. GFR <15ml / () will need dialysis treatment. GKD especially terminal kidney disease (ESRD) patients, CVD risk of a marked increase in general through the vascular tree to achieve. ESRD with atherosclerosis may be a causal relationship to each other, on the one hand, accelerated atherosclerosis in kidney disease progress, on the other hand, ESRD is the deterioration of many of the traditional atherosclerotic risk factors [2]. In general, CVD is the basic types of vascular disease and cardiomyopathy, the two subtypes of vascular disease is atherosclerosis and vascular remodeling, and CKD are the role of these two subtypes. Atherosclerotic plaque formation and the main obstruction in the main, CKD in atherosclerosis and the high incidence of a much wider range of diffuse atherosclerosis in a marked increase in cardiovascular disease mortality and accelerated deterioration of renal function. Atherosclerosis can lead to arterial wall thickening and myocardial ischemia matrix. In CKD patients, ischemic heart disease such as angina, myocardial infarction and sudden death, and cerebrovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease and heart failure are more common. Initially that the dialysis patients may be secondary to ischemic heart disease in easy to overload, left ventricular hypertrophy and small artery disease, resulting in reduced oxygen supply. However, studies have found that EPO in the former region, the low level of hemoglobin that also may be associated with ischemia-related. CKD patients the incidence of major vascular remodeling is higher, can lead to vascular remodeling in pressure overload, through the wall and the cavity wall thickening and increased the ratio of traffic overload, or to achieve, but mainly to increase the diameter and the wall thickness of main. Vascular remodeling in arterial compliance often dropped, resulting in increased systolic blood pressure, pulse pressure increased, left ventricular hypertrophy and reduced coronary perfusion [3,4]. Decreased arterial compliance and increased pulse pressure in dialysis patients are cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors independent [5].水钠潴留period as a result of dialysis treatment by ultrafiltration, dialysis patients with the diagnosis of heart failure more difficult, but the decline in blood pressure, fatigue, loss of appetite and other signs of heart failure diagnosis can be used as an important clue; On the other hand, more水钠潴留inappropriate to reflect the ultrafiltration rather than heart failure or heart failure combined ultrafiltration inappropriate. In fact, during dialysis ultrafiltration is inappropriate for one of the reasons why high blood pressure, heart failure often prompts. Therefore, dialysis patients with heart failure is an important indicator of poor prognosis, which often prompts the patient is in progress of cardiovascular disease. 1 chronic kidney disease risk factors of cardiovascular disease Is well known that patients suffering from kidney disease increase in cardiovascular disease mortality, largely attributable to high blood pressure caused by kidney disease, dyslipidemia, and anemia, but may lead to the causes of plaque rupture is not clear. Light to moderate CKD patients significantly increased the risk of vascular events, and when GFR <45ml / () at the risk greater. Recent studies suggest that due to ACEI (such as captopril, etc.) can reduce chronic kidney disease patients after myocardial infarction risk, if there is no clear contraindication, it is recommended conventional [6]. In normal circumstances, the application of chronic kidney disease treatment of ACEI or ARBs should be careful, it is necessary to understand the benefits of the application, but also take into account blood pressure, renal function, blood electrolyte changes, and possible interactions between drugs, such as the decline in renal function occur, increased serum potassium, etc. must be stopped [1]. In CKD in CVD risk factors to be divided into two types of traditional and non-traditional, traditional risk factors are the main means used to assess symptoms of ischemic heart disease factors such as age, diabetes, systolic blood pressure, left ventricular hypertrophy, and low HDL - C and so on, these factors and the relationship between cardiovascular disease and most people are the same. And define the non-traditional risk factors need to meet the following conditions: (1) to promote the development of CVD rationality biology; (2) the risk factors increased with the severity of kidney disease-related evidence; (3) reveals the CKD and the risk of CVD factors relevant evidence; (4) risk factors in the control group after treatment to reduce CVD evidence. Has been identified in non-traditional risk factors are mainly Hyperhomocysteinemia, oxidative stress, abnormal lipid levels, and atherosclerosis-related increase in markers of inflammation [7]. Recent study found that dialysis patients with oxidative stress and inflammatory markers significantly higher than the general population. Oxidative stress and inflammation may become the basic medium, while other factors such as anemia and cardiac disease, and calcium and phosphorus metabolic abnormalities and vascular remodeling and a decline in vascular compliance. Failure cardiovascular disease CVD mortality in dialysis patients than the general population 10 to 30 times, and the emergence of heart failure after acute myocardial infarction and high mortality rates, myocardial infarction within 1 to 2 years up to 59% mortality ~ 73%, significantly higher than the general crowd, and the Worcester heart Attack Study found that 3 / 4 males and 2 / 3 of women suffering from acute myocardial infarction in diabetic patients still alive after 2 years. At the same time hemodialysis patients atherosclerosis, heart failure and left ventricular hypertrophy abnormally high incidence of nearly 40% of the patients of ischemic heart disease or heart failure. Cardiovascular disease after renal transplantation Renal transplant patients, 35% ~ 50% of CVD death, CVD mortality than the general population of high 2-fold, but was significantly lower than that in hemodialysis patients. The most likely reason is acceptable from a kidney transplant and dialysis-related hemodynamic abnormalities and abnormal toxins. CVD after renal transplantation is the multiple risk factors, and not only include traditional factors such as hypertension, diabetes, hyperlipidemia, left ventricular hypertrophy, and have a decline in GFR of the non-traditional factors such as hyperhomocysteinemia, as well as immune suppression and exclusion. of cardiovascular disease in diabetic nephropathy Early diabetic nephropathy is mainly expressed in microalbuminuria, and progression of cardiovascular disease. Although type 1 diabetes patients with normal blood pressure, but was found in 24h at night to monitor the existence of "Nondipping" mode, may lead to microalbuminuria. "Nondipping" is identified the risk factors of cardiovascular disease, microalbuminuria with the diabetic patients are more vulnerable to dyslipidemia, blood glucose and blood pressure difficult to control. The study has confirmed that microalbuminuria with CVD have a clear relationship between the two types of diabetes in both the presence, but because of the age factor in type 2 diabetes in the more significant. Microalbuminuria is now considered that the prognosis of diabetic patients with cardiovascular disease and other factors in the risk of death indicators point of view can be explained as follows: (1) traditional microalbuminuria individual a higher incidence of risk factors; (2) micro - proteinuria can reflect the endothelial dysfunction, increased vascular permeability, abnormal coagulation and fibrinolysis system; (3) and inflammatory markers related; (4) are more vulnerable to end-organ damage. Prior studies suggest that the recent high blood pressure and vascular endothelial dysfunction, and therefore these patients may further aggravate the endothelial damage. However, the mechanism is not entirely clear at present that may be related to L-arginine transport by endothelial cells to damage, which led to the cell matrix of the lack of NO synthesis. Non-diabetic renal disease cardiovascular disease We mainly albuminuria and decreased GFR as a sign of chronic kidney disease, proteinuria than at the same time that microalbuminuria is more important, because whether or not there is diabetes, nephrotic syndrome and cardiovascular disease are related to the existence of the abnormal changes, such as serious hyperlipidemia and high blood coagulation status, etc. This explains the importance of reducing proteinuria. At present, we risk groups were divided into 3 groups, has been suffering from CVD, other vascular disease or diabetes as a high-risk groups; with traditional CVD risk factors such as high blood pressure, age, etc., as the crowd in danger; the community known as the low-risk group members 翻译.. 慢性肾病是心血管疾病的危险因素慢性肾病（CKD）是值得广泛关注的公共健康，发病率逐渐上升，同时带来了严重的后果和问题。我们注意到肾衰病人的主要是透析和肾移植，但是很少有学者关注CKD与心血管疾病（CVD）的关系。现已认为CKD也与CVD有关，且比急性进展中的肾功能衰竭更容易死于心血管疾病，CVD是 CKD最常见的死亡原因〔1〕。认识到CKD是CVD的高危因素这一点，是很重要的。只有这样，才有可能进行深入，进而寻求相关的预防和治疗措施，使这些病人获得更大益处。 CKD是指由肾活检或有关的标志物证实的肾功损害＞3个月，或GFR＜60ml/（）＞3个月。一般依据病和病因学分为糖尿病性、非糖尿病性和移植后肾病。肾功能损害可通过肾活检或相关的标志物如蛋白尿、异常尿沉积物、影像学异常等来诊断。蛋白尿不仅可以证明CKD的存在，亦可成为肾病类型诊断的重要依据，并与肾脏疾病的严重程度和心血管疾病的有关。尿白蛋白与肌酐比率或总蛋白与肌酐比率可用于评估蛋白尿。GFR＜60ml/（）作为肾功损害的临界值，该水平GFR往往预示肾衰的开始，其中也包括增加心血管疾病的发生及危险程度。GFR＜15ml/（）则需要透析治疗。 GKD尤其是终末肾病（ESRD）患者，CVD危险明显增加，一般通过血管树来实现的。ESRD与动脉粥样硬化可能互为因果关系，一方面粥样硬化加速肾病进展，另一方面ESRD恶化是许多传统粥样硬化的危险因素〔2〕。一般而言，CVD的基本类型是血管疾病和心肌病，血管疾病的两种亚型是动脉粥样硬化和大血管重塑，而CKD对这两种亚型均有作用。动脉粥样硬化主要以斑块形成和闭塞为主，CKD中动脉粥样硬化发生率很高而且范围更广，弥漫的粥样硬化明显增加心血管疾病死亡率和加速肾功能恶化。动脉粥样硬化可导致动脉壁基质增厚和心肌缺血。在CKD病人中，缺血性心脏病如心绞痛、心梗和猝死，以及脑血管疾病、外周血管疾病和心衰都是比较常见的。最初认为透析病人出现缺血性心脏病可能继发于容易超载、左室肥厚和小动脉病变，导致氧供减少。但是后来的研究发现，在前促红素区域，血红蛋白水平低，说明亦可能与缺血有关。CKD病人大血管重塑发生率亦较高，血管重塑可导致压力超载，通过管壁增厚和管壁与内腔比值增高或者流量超载来实现，但主要以增加的管壁直径和厚度为主。血管重塑常常使动脉顺应性下降，导致收缩压增加、脉压增大、左室肥厚和冠脉灌注减少〔3，4〕。动脉顺应性下降和脉压增大均为透析病人心血管疾病（CVD）的独立危险因素〔5〕。由于透析期间水钠潴留可通过超滤得到治疗，透析病人心衰的诊断比较困难，但血压下降、疲劳、食欲减退等征象，可作为心衰诊断的重要线索；另一方面，水钠潴留更能反映超滤不合适，而不是心衰或心衰合并超滤不恰当。实际上，透析期间超滤不合适的原因之一就是高血压，往往提示心衰。因此，心衰是透析病人预后不良的重要指标，这往往提示病人心血管疾病正在进展。 1 慢性肾病的心血管疾病危险因素 众所周知，患肾脏疾病的病人心血管病死亡率增加，很大程度上归因于肾病所致的高血压、血脂异常和贫血，但可能导致粥样斑块破裂的原因还不是很清楚。轻到中度CKD病人血管事件危险明显增高，而当GFR＜45ml/（）时这种危险更大。近期有关研究认为因 ACEI（如卡托普利等）可降低慢性肾病病人心梗后的危险，如没有明显禁忌证，建议常规〔6〕。而在一般情况下，慢性肾病应用ACEI或ARBs治疗要慎重，既要了解应用的益处，又要考虑到血压、肾功能、血电解质变化和可能的药物间相互作用，如出现肾功能下降、血钾增高等就必须停药〔1〕。 在CKD中把CVD的危险因素分为传统和非传统两种，传统的危险因素主要指用于评估有症状缺血性心脏病的因素，如年龄、糖尿病、收缩性高血压、左室肥厚、低HDL-C等，这些因素与心血管疾病的关系与一般人是一致的。 而界定非传统危险因素需要满足如下条件：（1）促进CVD发展的生物学方面的合理性；（2）危险因素升高与肾病严重程度相关的证据；（3）揭示CKD中CVD与危险因素关系的相关证据；（4）有对照组中危险因素经治疗后CVD降低的证据。目前已确定的非传统危险因素主要有高同型半胱氨酸血症、氧化应激、异常脂血症、与粥样硬化有关的增高的炎症标志物〔7〕。近来研究发现，透析病人氧化应激和炎症标志物水平明显高于一般人群。氧化应激和炎症有可能成为基本的介质，而其他因素如贫血与心肌病有关，钙磷代谢异常与血管重塑和血管顺应性下降有关。 肾衰中心血管疾病 透析病人中CVD死亡率比普通人群高10～30倍，而出现急性心梗和心衰后致死率很高，心梗后1～2年死亡率达59%～73%，明显高于一般人群，而Worcester heart Attack研究发现，有3/4男性和2/3女性糖尿病病人患急性心梗后仍存活2年以上。同时血液透析病人动脉粥样硬化、心衰和左室肥厚发生率异常增高，有接近40%的病人出现缺血性心脏病或心衰。 肾移植后心血管疾病 肾移植病人中有35%～50%因CVD死亡，CVD死亡率比普通人群高2倍，但明显低于血液透析病人。最可能的原因是接受肾移植后免除了与透析有关的血流动力学异常和毒素异常。肾移植后CVD的危险因素是多重的，既包括传统因素如高血压、糖尿病、高脂血症、左室肥厚，亦有与GFR 下降有关的非传统因素如高同型半胱氨酸血症以及免疫抑制和排斥。 糖尿病肾病的心血管疾病 糖尿病肾病的早期主要表现为微量白蛋白尿，与心血管疾病进展有关。尽管1型糖尿病病人血压正常，但在24h监测中发现夜间存在 “Nondipping”模式，可能导致微量白蛋白尿。“Nondipping”是已确认的心血管疾病的危险因素，伴有微量白蛋白尿的糖尿病病人也更易出现血脂异常、血糖难以控制和血压升高。有关研究已证实微量白蛋白尿与CVD有明确关系，在两种类型糖尿病中均存在，但由于年龄因素在2型糖尿病中更显著。现已认为微量白蛋白尿是糖尿病病人心血管疾病预后和其他致死因素的危险指标，可通过如下观点来解释：（1）微量白蛋白尿个体传统危险因素发生率更高；（2）微量白蛋白尿能反映内皮功能异常、血管渗透性增加、凝血纤溶系统异常；（3）与炎症标志物有关；（4）更易出现终末器官损害。最近Prior研究认为高血压与血管内皮功能异常有关，因此在这类病人中可能进一步加重内皮损害。但有关机制不完全清楚，目前认为可能与L-精氨酸转运至内皮细胞受到损害有关，进而导致细胞内合成NO的基质缺乏。 非糖尿病性肾病的心血管疾病 我们主要把蛋白尿和GFR下降作为慢性肾病的标志，同时认为蛋白尿比微量白蛋白尿更重要，因为无论是否存在糖尿病，肾病综合征均存在与心血管疾病有关的异常改变，如严重高脂血症和高凝血状态等，这就说明降低蛋白尿具有重要意义。目前我们把危险人群分为3组，已经患CVD、其他血管病或糖尿病作为高危人群；具有CVD传统的易患因素如高血压、年龄等作为中危人群；将社区人员称为低危人群
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导言硝苯地平，钙通道阻断剂，广泛用于治疗高血压。然而，生物利用度相对较低硝苯地平口服后的晶型，由于其有限的水溶性（长谷川等。 ， 1985a ， B ， C三） 。各种口服制剂如硝苯地平固体分散体（ Chutimaworapan等。 ， 2000年;米切尔等人。 ， 2003年;杉等。 ， 1982年; Zajc等。 ， 2005年） ，包合物（ Bayomi等。 ， 2002年） ，纳米晶（ Hecq等。 ， 2005年）和微粒药物（ Kerc等。 ， 1999年）制定了以提高溶解度和生物利用度硝苯地平。此外，长期的行动硝苯地平是另一个主要考虑因素的有效治疗高血压，因为硝苯地平正在迅速消除血浆舱室及其降压行动只持续了几个小时（长谷川等。 ， 1985年甲，乙，丙） 。 最近，我们开发出一种新的口服剂型称为'明胶微胶囊'这包裹的酒精和毒品。这是试图制定用明胶作为一种水溶性高分子壳牌增加溶出度很差水溶性药物（ Li等人。 ， 2008 ） 。不善水溶性药物包裹明胶微囊易溶或分散在消化道口服后，造成了不良的生物利用度提高水溶性药物（朴等。 ， 2008 ;勇等人。 ， 2005年） 。 在这项研究中，以提高生物利用度硝苯地平，硝苯吡啶加载明胶微囊载硝苯地平溶解在乙醇中明胶壳准备使用喷雾机。然后，涂层硝苯地平加载明胶微囊制备了涂层nifedipineloaded明胶微胶囊与丙烯酸树脂丙烯酸树脂维持有效血药浓度在较长硝苯地平加载涂层微胶囊的影响进行了评价比较硝苯地平粉末。