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隐喻的中西方文化差异Abstract: Metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon but also a way of thinking, which is one of the basic methods for human survival and cognition. It is rooted in language, thought and culture. Through the analysis and comparison of the use and concept of metaphor in different countries, we find that its universality and commonality of the metaphor as a basic human cognitive activities. However, metaphor in different languages reflects a different way of thinking and behavior and different cultural patterns. Owing to the different two modes of thinking and culture, there are some differences in understanding and formation that can not be ignored. Therefore, this paper will discuss the questions : metaphor, cross-cultural differences, translation. 1. Preamble Metaphor is a common phenomenon, a large number of people use metaphor to express his feelings and ideas. British scientists rhetoric Richards (IARichards) once said, "We have day-to-day in almost every conversation in three sentences may be a metaphor." According to statistics, life around the use of 4,700,000 new metaphor, 2,140,000 stereotypes of metaphor. Research in recent years, there is a great metaphor. This article introduced in the definition of metaphor on the basis of summing up the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western metaphor, and that its culture, precisely because of the prevalence of metaphor, how to translate metaphor has become a very important issue in the latter part of the article is aimed at The translation of metaphor put forward a translation of the three strategies. This paper studies aimed at trying to comparative analysis of English and Chinese in a large number of day-to-day language of metaphor to express, find out the differences and similarities, in order to be able to accurately translate the article in good metaphor to explore a little. This article is about the metaphor from the point of view to explore the differences in the way Thinking allows us to a deeper understanding of language, culture, the relationship between thinking and can more clearly understand the different ethnic language, culture, way of thinking, and so on On the nature of translation. 2. Metaphors in Chinese and Western studies In 1980, Lakoff & Johnson (George Lakoff & Mark Johnson) made a "living metaphor" (Metaphors We Live By) of the book, a modern metaphor to open a new chapter in the school. Domestic academia on the "metaphor" This is also a review of the system, such as Lin Wu's book "Study abroad metaphor Looking at the" beam-setting "metaphor research," Li of China and India "The main subjects Metaphor" and so on. However, the Chinese metaphor for the academic study of rare. "Chinese scholars on the study of metaphor, I am afraid the real contribution should be through the metaphor of the Chinese characteristics of research and study, through the metaphor of the Chinese and other languages in the comparative study of metaphor, metaphor for the establishment of a more general theory of the strong, and even unique The basis. "Lin Wu in the book" metaphor of the basic research the status quo, and the focus of the trend "in the main text, put forward a model of cultural metaphors with the relationship:" The language of metaphor is the emergence of expression into the system, which not only reflects the psychological Structure, but also reflect the different cultural models also play a role. " metaphor in the relationship between Chinese and Western cultures relationship Correspond to (corresponding) refers to the relationship between the two languages, English and Chinese in the meaning and metaphor in the use of the same meaning in the culture and image, and so on and-one mapping. This is because the survival of mankind itself, as well as all the external conditions, including the geographical environment, climate change, and the whole of human society and cultural background are certain there is a common, which formed a common humanity of their own and the outside world on many issues. In the "angry" mood, the English are angry that physiological responses, such as: grind one's teeth. (Teeth), bare one's teeth. (Ziyaliezui) an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. (an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth), reflecting the Chinese culture on the basis of common experience. non-correspondence English-Chinese metaphor, after all, rooted in two different languages on the soil, resulting in very different cultural backgrounds, fully corresponds to the few metaphors, the vast majority do not have common cultural identity in order to form the corresponding non-(non-corresponding ) Relations. Non-relationship metaphor can be roughly divided into three categories: Vehicle counterpart, Yu Yi does not correspond to English and Chinese in some cases there is the same as a metaphor, but in their own language and culture in the meaning of the metaphor means is different, even different. Peacock in the Chinese culture is auspicious, a symbol of beauty, especially the Dai people to express jumped Pavaner desire to better their own. If the Chinese people will be likened to a peacock, it means that beautiful light. However, in English, peacock (Peacock) is a symbol of pride, often interpreted as arrogance, love to show off. For example, They were eager to take the young peacock down a peg. (They want to pressure a pressure that the arrogant young guy's momentum). counterpart Yu Yi, the vehicle does not correspond to English-Chinese two nations due to their differences, from different angles to look at things the same, it will be a different analogy. As a result both English and Chinese language there is a different vehicle, but Yu was referring to was basically the same as the meaning of the case, that is the same kind of non-correspondence. Such as: a person described as the hearts of anxious, restless, Chinese is "ants on the hot pan" and English is "a cat on the bricks". There are similar: To kick down the ladder. Guohechaiqiao. Yu Yu Yi and do not correspond to Some of the metaphors Yu-Yu has a meaning and it refers to the language and culture are closely related, in another culture often can not find corresponding Yu and Yu Yi, which resulted in a culture known as the default Phenomenon. For example: in English "my rib" I am referring to Yu's wife, it comes from the "Bible" story, that is, Adam (Adam)'s wife Eve (Eve) God is with a piece of Adam's rib made. The Chinese did not, "the Bible" cultural background, and there was no analogy with rib habit, so the formation of a corresponding gap. Similarly, "ugly duckling" (Ugly Duckling) refers to the metaphor will get ahead of Little, "early bird" refers to the diligent Yu, in the words into Chinese language, culture, as a result of the default, can not find a corresponding relationship between metaphor . Chinese and Western cultures in the common metaphor Metaphor and culture to a large extent, human beings have a common understanding, rooted in the people's own day-to-day experience. In this connection, often between different ethnic groups are the same. Both English and Chinese language in a lot of abstract thinking that the metaphorical expression is the same. For example: the human child in the period to form a position on the concept of input in that direction in the form of many of them easily understood, including the position expressed by metaphor, which has become a fixed pattern of thinking. For example: The term direction (up, down) to describe people's social status, physical, emotional, and other abstract concepts to the case when the good is up; Sad is down. We Chinese are also not difficult to find a similar sentence: "Gas Prices "," enhance the social status "and" vision "and" depressed. " Since the objective laws of nature with the relative unity of different cultures to understand the nature of the course is similar to the cognitive experience. in the metaphor of the difference between Chinese and Western cultures As the English-Chinese geographical and cultural differences, living in two different cultures in practice there are a lot of differences, and different life experiences and let people understand the objective world, a different language carries different nationalities Cultural characteristics and cultural information. Understanding of metaphor is not out of socio-cultural backgrounds. For example, social and cultural impact of the color words is deep-rooted, some color words in different cultures in an entirely different meaning, has a distinctive feature of our national culture. Such as: English, said in green "inexperienced" and "shallow knowledge", such as: "a green hand", "I was very green when I started working there." The Chinese like to express the meaning of the word is "yellow" Such as: "Huangmaoyatou" and "flower girl". Cultural background knowledge is the metaphor to create a rich source of thinking, as the Eastern and Western cultures are different, metaphors in English and Chinese applications there are also significant differences. The metaphor of the cross-cultural differences between Chinese and Western influence Language is a cultural change in the development of the complex, subject to political, economic, historical, environmental and other factors. Chinese and Western styles are different, but in many ways to infiltrate interaction and integration, language differences and cultural metaphor for the inevitable impact is complex and diverse. metaphorical expression of cultural conflict Different nationalities in the world to observe a different perspective and ideas, different cultures there are a lot of conflict or inconsistency metaphor. If the animal metaphors, in English Long (dragon) is a kind of evil, will belch out smoke monster. "Bible", the dragon is the devil, is a symbol of evil and terror, there is a terrible vicious meaning. The Chinese dragon is in power, the auspicious symbol of Chinese traditional culture, the Chinese have "Wangzichenglong", "descendants of the Dragon." The same analogy in different cultures, different meaning, of two cultures "Dragon" to give a different connotation. differences in living conditions caused by differences in metaphor In English is a lot of metaphor and marine-related, such as: all at sea (at a loss what to do); drink like a fish (drinking cow); fish in the air (Shuizhonglaoyue); give up the ship (give up). In Chinese, there are a lot of the horse or cattle pose a metaphor, such as: "a willing ox" (a willing horse) Gan means to serve the community; "old ox" (a working horse) refers to the hard work; "bragging "(Talk horse), and so on. This is due to different geographical location and natural environment caused by different cultural metaphor. Britain is an island, ultimately, dependent on the sea, and China is a large agricultural country, farming culture deeply feudal society. different religious and cultural differences arising from the metaphor Religious culture of human culture is an important part of it by referring to the nation's religious beliefs, such as the formation of the sense of culture, "the Bible" in the story, with its language and meaning has become a feature of daily life in the West in terms of . For example, power of the keys (the keys to the kingdom of heaven; the rights of the Pope), in the right church, but in the wrong pew (in general is right, but not the details), and so on. Chinese culture and Buddhism, Taoism and more affected by the impact of Confucianism, the Chinese, there are a lot of related argot. "Jiehuaxianfo"; "临时抱佛脚"; "做一天和尚撞一天钟" and so on. It is due to the diversity of culture, resulting in the differences between English and Chinese metaphor. This difference to the cross-cultural communication has brought the impact. As a foreign language students, do not understand the difference between metaphor and language will make mistakes, sometimes mistakenly made good as pleasant, caused by either one or both of the conversation unpleasant; also sometimes mocked as a praise. When a native language other operators do not understand the language contained in the cultural differences, it is often difficult for such language to accurately convey the meaning of the understanding, difficulty to the cross-cultural exchange. 3. Metaphor of the three methods of translation The translation of metaphor not only accurately and effectively convey the original language, but also loyal, accessible, complete reproduction of the original language and cultural connotation and significance. But in the West because of cultural differences and different, so the translation of metaphor in English on the need to consider not only its literal sense, and so on, but also in the West should pay attention to their cultural differences. American Eugene Nida said: "Translation is the exchange between the two cultures. The real success of the translation, even more familiar with the two cultures is more important to master two languages. Because only in terms of its role in the culture In the background will only be meaningful. "Therefore, the translation of metaphor to combining Chinese and Western cultures, and cultural backgrounds to leave the translation, can not be achieved between the two languages of the real exchange. Literal Translation The so-called "literal" is asked in the language when conditions permit, in the translation to maintain the original content, but also to maintain the original form, in particular, to maintain the original metaphor, the image of the nation, and other local color. In the literal translation method to maintain the original expression of the culture and at the same time, target enriched the vocabulary and expression, such as: "a Pandora's box" (Pandora's Box); "chain reaction" (chain reaction). In the original text and asked the information contained in the same culture, we should adopt the literal translation method. (1) You are my sunshine, my only sunshine. : You are my sun, my only sunshine. In Chinese and English, the sun is warm, beautiful, in both languages, they disseminate information on culture are the same. As a rule, and asked in the original text in the form of grammatical structure, similar to the style or color on basically the same, the law should adopt the literal translation. (1) He is another Shylock. : He is also a Shylock. (Note: Shakespeare's Shylock is "The Merchant of Venice" in a very harsh mean business People. ) (2) To carry coals to Newcastle. : Coal to Newcastle. (Note: "Newcastle" is a British coal, coal is superfluous here.) 4. Conclusion Metaphor as a way to figures of speech or skills, a unique feature of grammar, which features make the sentence more flexible and constructive, but the United States. Is a metaphor to express more complex ideas and things, a powerful tool. Wherever and whenever people in their daily lives are often used metaphor. As Mr. Lin Zhuang said: "The metaphor is no longer expanding his knowledge and understanding of a passive process. To help us in the form of new knowledge, the metaphor has played an active role so that we can better a better understanding of the objective world." In English and Chinese Metaphorical significance of the difference is due to cultural differences between East and West, that mode of thinking, moral values and sense of difference. However, different cultural impact of what is the concept of metaphor, it is still a need to examine and address the problem. At the same time, in the metaphor of the process of translation must pay special attention to cultural differences. The best translation is to be able to accurately reflect the true meaning of the author, as well as its cultural and stylistic characteristics of the translation, that is, the translation of metaphor to make as much as possible the original language and to achieve the target language culture, and so on.

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流浪停吗

古希腊和古罗马这两大文明是西方文化的摇篮,是世界文化史上两座永恒的丰碑,是西方人所津津乐道的光辉时代。勤劳的古希腊和罗马人民用他们的智慧给我们创造了一个个令人叹为观止的杰作,留给我们一个无论是文化史上还是艺术史上的维以超越的高度。其中古希腊文化又是罗马文化的源头,罗马文化在其基础上不断地发展创新,创造了许许多多独树一帜的文化,艺术构想和杰作。因此本文主要是讨论了这两个文化的异同,找出“原希腊”的东西,区分罗马的创新,给西方文化的传承和发展提供一些粗浅的线索和脉络。经济发展模式希腊是由本土半岛和一些散落在爱琴海和地中海的一些小岛组成的。它三面环海,只有北面与陆地相接,且多丘陵少平原,属于温和的海洋性气候。正是因为这样的地理条件使得它的农业难以发展,为了生存,希腊人学会了和其它地区进行农产品的交换,并逐渐形成了地中海地区繁荣的贸易往来。罗马的环境和希腊类似,它地处今意大利半岛,是一个多丘陵,多沼泽的地区。因此农业也不十分发达。但罗马解决这一问题的方法并不是像希腊一样通过自由贸易,物物交换。它使用的是一种血腥的方式——侵略和扩张。为了满足罗马帝国日渐庞大的粮食、财富的需求,罗马人选择了不断地侵略。依靠着强大的军队、武器,罗马从昔日台伯河边上一个卑微的小城一跃成为统治着200万平方英里的帝国的中心。同时随着罗马帝国的不断膨胀,使得对这些物资的消耗急剧增多,反过来这又导致了罗马帝国的继续扩张,如此一来便形成了一个恶性循环,它由始至终都伴随着罗马帝国。相比而言,为了抵御恶劣多变的海上环境,希腊发展起来的却是一种互相合作的良性竞争模式。并且,后者己渗入当代西方人的精神领域。除此之外,希腊的经济发展主要是靠商人进行的海外和地区间的贸易往来和本土的农民耕种。希腊城邦中的奴隶数量比罗马少得多,罗马经年累月的征战,带来财富的同时还有大批大批的奴隶,这些奴隶广泛地分布在大部分的产业,比如采矿,冶金,驾船,铺路和大型建筑的建造。可以这样说,古罗马的伟大和成就很大一部分是由奴隶创造的。总的来说,希腊和罗马的经济发展走的是截然不同的道路,体现了两种截然不同的思想,这些思想的以后西方国家的经济发展上有着深远的影响。只要稍了解历史的人都知道,后世西方各国基本上都经由了这两个阶段,比如欧洲新帝国对非洲,美洲的海外扩张,奴隶贸易,俨然是罗马形式的另一版本,而同时期广泛存在于各国之间的贸易往来却又是希腊式的重现。政治与民主一谈到民主,我们就会想到当代西方的“人权”社会,但民主这个字眼最早出现在古希腊的雅典。希腊的民主政治,一方面给予几百人或几千人以民主,另一方面又剥夺了数以万计的奴隶与自由民参与政事的权力。当时希腊民主的要义就是:多数人的统治;法律面前人人平等;个人生活自由。虽然此时的民主具有很强的阶级性,只是对于公民的民主,但在几千年前,这种观点己远远超越了它的那个时代。相比我们这个时代的民主,我认为它们的内涵是一致的。虽然当代西方政界口口声声说的是“人人平等,维护人权”,可是这种民主真实存在吗?比如美国,它的政治还是掌握在少数有钱有权的大资本家手中,体现在表象上是一个由其资助的“民主”代言人——美国总统。处于中,下层的公民在很多时候仍是被政治家玩弄于“民主”的假象间。从这个意义上说,它的民主和古希腊的民主是完全一致的。古罗马早期的政治体制是仿照希腊的,后期从奥古斯都?凯撒起,“民主”便不存在了,转为君主专制,直到它的灭亡。罗马人最大的贡献便是立法。在贵族和贫民之间的激烈的矛盾和斗争过程中,产生了第一部成文法律《十二铜表法》,虽然此法律依旧维护的是贵族和上层阶级的利益,在那个时期却又是文明的一大进步。之后陆续产生的《万民法》,《公民法》,《民权大法》更是奠定了西方法律体系的雏形。尤其是《民权大法》中规定的“公民的私有财产神圣不可侵犯”,成为后世西方法律中永恒的主题。除此之外,在宗教`文学、雕塑、自然科学等方面,古希腊和古罗马文明也为后世西方文学、艺术的发展提供了源源不断的灵感和活力。以上只是对古希腊和古罗马给后世影响的一些方面做了简要的探讨,我也只能用我粗鄙的文字去叩响西方古典时期那厚重的大门。但仅仅从这几个方面我们就足以看出,古希腊和古罗马对后世西方的影响是多么的巨大,多么地深远。也许从这种透入骨髓的深刻中我们能学会反思自己的文化,找到其中的精髓,重新合理地给自己定位,从而更有动力地前进。

174 评论

诺仔滴麻麻

浅析斯巴达教育古代希腊最强大的的城邦中,雅典第一,斯巴达第二。 斯巴达的教育以培养凶悍的军士著称于世。 斯巴达是公元前8世纪左右建立的古希腊奴隶制最大城邦国之一,为了镇压奴隶的反抗和异邦的侵袭,斯巴达把每个城邦变成了一个大军营,每一个斯巴达人都将通过长期严格的军事体育训练而成为士兵。所谓城邦,就是一个国家,它以城市为中心,周围是乡镇。斯巴达位于希腊半岛南部的拉哥尼亚平原。拉哥尼亚三面环山,中间有一块小平原。“斯巴达”原来的意思就是“可以耕种的平原”。约在公元前11世纪,一批叫做多利亚人的希腊部落,南下侵入拉哥尼亚,他们毁掉原有的城邦,在这里居住下来,这就是多利亚人的斯巴达城——不过它既没有城墙,也没有象样的街道。斯巴达人就是指来到这里的多利亚人。 斯巴达人在征服拉哥尼亚的过程中,把原有的居民变成奴隶,称作希洛人。公元前8世纪,斯巴达人又向邻邦美塞尼亚发动长达10年的战争,最后征服了美塞尼亚,将多数美塞尼亚人变成奴隶,并为希洛人。希洛人被固定在土地上,从事艰苦的农业劳动,每年将一半以上的收获缴给奴隶主,自己过着半饥半饱、牛马不如的生活。有一首诗中写道; 像驴子似地背着无可忍受的负担, 他们受着暴力的压迫; 从勤苦耕作中得来的果实, 一半要送进主人的仓屋。 斯巴达人经常对外发动战争,因此希洛人的军役负担十分沉重。希波战争期间,斯巴达人一次就征发了3.5万希洛人随军出征。他们被迫去打头阵,用自己的生命去探明敌方的虚实,消耗敌方的兵力。 哪里有压迫,哪里就有反抗。希洛人忍受不了斯巴达人的残酷剥削和野蛮暴行,经常举行武装起义。再加上希洛人在数量上比斯巴达人多得多,斯巴达人就用一种叫“克里普提”的方法来迫害和消灭希洛人。克里普提是秘密行动的意思,史诗中记载:“长官们时常派遣大批最谨慎的青年战士下乡,他们只带着短剑和一些必需的给养品。在白天,他们分散隐蔽在偏僻的地方,杀死他们所能捉到的每一个希洛人。有时,他们也来到希洛人正在劳动的田地里,杀死其中最强壮最优秀者”。在斯巴达和雅典的一次战争中,2000希洛人立下战功,斯巴达人答应给他们自由,把他们带到大庙中给神谢恩。但他们被埋伏在大庙中的奴隶主屠杀了。希洛人作为所有斯巴达人的公共财产,个别斯巴达人无权买卖希洛人,但可以任意伤害希洛人。在节日里,斯巴达人常用劣酒灌醉希洛人,把他们拖到公共场所肆意侮辱。希洛人既使没有过错,每年也要被鞭笞一次,目的是要希洛人记住自己的奴隶身份。为了维持对希洛人的压迫与剥削,镇压希洛人的反抗,斯巴达人需要一只强壮的军队。斯巴达人形成了一种独特的政治制度,整个社会过着军事化的生活,孩子们从小受到的教育就是军事训练。为了防止斯巴达人内部贫富分化,斯巴达人不许从事工商业,不用金银做货币,而用价值低廉的铁币。斯巴达人除了军事外,不得从事其它生计。斯巴达人崇尚武力精神,整个斯巴达社会等于是个管理严格的大军营。在斯巴达,国家实行全民皆兵的制度,斯巴达人不从事任何生产活动,而是全力以赴地投入军事训练以备战争,因而他们的教育宗旨就是锻炼强壮的体魄、坚韧的毅力和顽强的精神,培养合格的军人。围绕这一宗旨,他们实行严酷的人种淘汰:斯巴达的男孩子在婴儿时要由烈酒验洗选拔出来,从小训练他们不怕黑暗、不怕孤独、不爱哭、不急躁的性格。 男孩子七岁前,由双亲抚养。 男孩七岁后即进入国家组织的少年团,接受严格艰苦的训练。他们要求对首领绝对服从,要求增强勇气、体力和残忍性,他们练习跑步、掷铁饼、拳击、击剑和殴斗等。为了训练孩子的服从性和忍耐性,他们每年在节日敬神时都要被皮鞭鞭打一次。他们跪在神殿前,火辣辣的皮鞭如雨点般落下,但不许求饶,不许喊叫为了培养其吃苦精神,训练中让他们光头、赤脚、单衣、洗冷水澡、睡粗苇席;为培养其毅力,实行鞭打制度;为训练其敏捷与机智,让他们去行窃,如果行窃时没有被抓住,就会受到赞扬和奖励,否则会被看成是愚笨而受罚。斯巴达男子在18—20岁时接受正规的武装军事训练,参加实战演习,以培养其适应战争环境的能力。20岁时成为正式军人,一直服役到60岁,在这期间结婚的男子只能偷偷地与妻子相会。他们平时整日在军营生活,丧失了个性的活泼与自由,把一生都献给了军营。常年累月的顽强训练,培养出了他们坚忍不拔的精神和为国效忠的品质。在军事训练同时,斯巴达人还向儿童灌输斯巴达人高贵、希洛人低贱的观点。教官常在儿童面前任意侮辱和鞭打希洛人,甚至带他们参加“克里普提”活动,直接屠杀希洛人。男孩到12岁,编入少年队。他们的生活更严酷了,光头赤脚,无论冬夏只穿一件外衣,平时食物很少,但鼓励他们到外面偷食物吃。如果被人发现,回来要挨重打,因为他偷窃的本领不高明。传说有一个少年,偷一只狐狸藏在胸前,狐狸在衣服内咬他,为了不被人发现,他不动声,直至被狐狸咬死。 满20岁后,斯巴达男青年正式成为军人。30岁成亲,但每天还要参加军事训练。60岁时退伍,但仍是预备军人。斯巴达女孩7岁仍留在家里,但她们不是整天织布做家务,而是从事体育锻炼,学习跑步、竞走、掷铁饼、搏斗等。斯巴达人认为只有身体强健的母亲,才能生下刚强的战士。斯巴达妇女很勇敢和坚强,她们不怕看到儿子在战场上负伤或死亡。一个斯巴达母亲送儿子上战场时,不是祝他平安归来,而是给他一个盾牌,说:“要么拿着,要么躺在上面。”意思是说,要么拿着盾牌光荣胜利归来,要么光荣战死被别人用盾牌抬回来。 斯巴达人轻视文化教育。青少年只要求会写命令和便条就可以了。斯巴达人要求他们的子弟语言简明,直截了当,从小养成沉默寡言的习惯。他们的说话就象军事口令一样。有一次,一个国王威胁斯巴达国王,要斯巴达听从他的命令,否则把斯巴达夷为平地,斯巴达国王的回答是:“请!”这种简洁的回答后来被称做斯巴达式的回答。同样,斯巴达人轻视文学艺术、自然科学。斯巴达城里,几乎看不到一座宏伟的建筑物,斯巴达人也没有制作出一件精致的艺术品传到后世。斯巴达人实行“二王制”。两个国王只有在打仗时才拥有无限的权力,一个国王充任统帅,一个国王留守国内。平时,一切重大问题都由30个人组成的“长老会议”决定。有5个执政官协助国王处理政务。一切有关城邦的重大事务,均由长老会议作出决定。然而,名义上还要由公民大会通过,方可有效。斯巴达在长期的对外战争中,不断加剧对希洛人的压迫和剥削。英勇的希洛人多次举行起义。约公元前640年,希洛人发动长达十几年的武装起义。公元前464年,斯巴达境内的希洛人再次起义。他们英勇顽强,直逼斯巴达城下,坚持了长达10年的斗争。斯巴达人在无可奈何的情况下,给了起义军自由。斯巴达的统治也因此受到沉重的打击。公元前4世纪中叶以后,斯巴达一天天走向衰亡。尽管斯巴达教育有着不足,但是就斯巴达的教育体系,就最切近的目标而言,它是非常成功的。几个世纪里,公民们都是富于服从、节俭和自我牺牲精神的。普鲁塔克说,他们象蜜蜂一样,只为公共利益而行动;他们渴望荣誉,行动中带有近乎疯狂的热情,除了他们的国家别无他念。坚定不移的最高价值观念,对痛苦和艰辛无怨无忧地忍受,为整体生存不变的献身精神,这些都是斯巴达人所特有的。在许多希腊城邦丧失独立,以及他们的风俗和观念解体后很久,斯巴达人还拥有相当程度的自主。许多年间。斯巴达人始终保持精神观念的统一,即使置身于个人主义泛滥,社会分崩离析的形势下,仍然如此。

177 评论

柠檬草星冰le

Chinese and Western cultural differences in the performance of every aspect of daily life from the greeting 、 term diet and cultural differences in the way of thinking in the abstract, such as differences everywhere, from the West focus on the following colors to express the difference between Chinese and Western cultural differences in areas such as a wedding set. First, in the West to express the color difference Different colors in different languages is not expressed in the same way. The representative of China in a sense, the West has a meaning that even the "color" to understand the meaning of the contrary. (A) red (red) Whether in China or in the English-speaking countries, often in red and festive celebrations or day-related. Calendar, red font used these days, therefore, red letter day: refers to the "Day" or "happy occasion." It also refers to the red "liabilities" or "loss" because people are always negative in red to register. So there are these phrases: red figure deficit in the red loss In common with the Chinese "red" words, translated into English, may not necessarily use the "red" for example: brown sugar brown sugar red wine red wine (B) yellow Yellow in English and Chinese in the extended meaning of the differences are considerable. In English, yellow can be said that the "timid, cowardly, despicable," meaning, for example: a yellow dog despicable, cowardly people a yellow livered coward Chinese yellow symbol of the term is sometimes vulgar, vulgar and obscene, indecent indecency means, such as yellow film, erotica, yellow CD, and so on. These in the name of "yellow" in English and "yellow" has nothing to do. However, in another English word blue is the color used to indicate the kind of meaning in Chinese, such as the blue jokes (dirty joke), blue films (yellow film). Second, the cultural differences in Western wedding First of all, in Western wedding culture and the first in the West in thinking about the differences: the Chinese people more conservative, like excitement, more old-fashioned thinking, so in the history of China for thousands of years the entire wedding customs did not change much. The thinking in the West is more open to the requirements of the wedding will be lower, they will be the climax of the wedding in the church: the sacred as the "wedding march" into the red carpet, Jiao Mei's father, the bride linked hands Rose walked slowly to the groom, the bride's father, daughter to the groom's hand on hand, her daughter's life will be entrusted to the groom, all eyes followed the couple, filled with well-being in their face. Second, the result of cultural differences wedding in the West because the West in a different religion. China is mainly Buddhist, but the West is mainly Christian. Therefore, the Western wedding is to be held in the church and the priest is Zhuhun Ren. China's traditional customs of the most important part of the Bai Tiandi is, the worship heaven and earth even after the ceremony has become.中西方文化差异表现在方方面面,从日常生活的打招呼用语、饮食文化等差异到思维方式等抽象方面的差异无所不在,下面着重从中西方颜色表达的差异,中西方婚礼文化差异等方面阐述。 一、中西方颜色表达的差异 不同颜色在不同语言中表达的方式并不一样。在中国代表一种意义,在西方又表示一种涵义,甚至对“颜色”的涵义理解恰恰相反。(一)red(红色)无论是在英语国家还是在中国,红色往往与庆祝活动或喜庆日子有关。日历中,这些日子常用红色字体,因此,red letter day:指的是“纪念日”或“喜庆的日子”。红色还指“负债”或“亏损”,因为人们总是用红笔登记负数。于是就有了这些词组:red figure赤字 in the red亏损汉语中常用的带“红”字的词语,翻译成英语,可不一定用“red”例如:红糖brown sugar 红酒red wine (二) yellow黄色在英语和汉语中的引申含义差别比较大。英语中,yellow可以表示“胆小、卑怯、卑鄙”的意思,例如:a yellow dog 可鄙的人,卑鄙的人a yellow livered 胆小鬼汉语中黄色一词有时象征低级趣味、色情庸俗、下流猥亵的意思,如黄色电影、黄色书刊、黄色光碟等等。这些名称中的“黄”与英语中的“yellow”无关。然而,英语中另一个颜色词blue却常用来表示汉语中这类意思,如blue jokes(下流的玩笑), blue films(黄色电影)等。 二、中西方婚礼文化差异 首先,中西方婚礼文化差异首先和中西方人在思维方面的差异有关:中国人比较保守,喜欢热闹,思维较古板,所以在中国历史几千年的时间里整个婚礼的习俗并没有多大的变化。而西方人的思想则比较开放,对于婚礼的要求也比较低,他们婚礼的高潮则是在教堂中:随着神圣的《婚礼进行曲》步入鲜红的地毯,娇美的新娘挽着父亲手捧玫瑰慢慢向新郎走去,新娘的父亲将女儿的手放在新郎的手上,将女儿的一生托付给新郎,所有人的目光注视着这对新人,幸福洋溢在他们的脸上。其次,造成中西方婚礼文化差异的原因是中西方不同的宗教。中国是以佛教为主,而西方则是基督教为主的。所以西方的婚礼是在教堂中举行而主婚人则是神甫。中方的传统婚俗中的最重要环节就是拜天地,拜了天地以后就算是礼成了。

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smiley0603

欧洲,不仅是一个地理概念,更是一种 文化 凝聚的象征。下文是我为大家整理的关于欧洲文化的论文的 范文 ,欢迎大家阅读参考! 关于欧洲文化的论文篇1 欧洲社会福利制度文化渊源探究 摘 要:从福利文化的角度出发,探索欧洲社会福利制度背后的文化渊源,通过对北欧、西欧和南欧福利文化的解读,发现福利文化对福利制度产生发展过程中所形成的巨大力量,从而对我国构建社会福利文化得出启示。 关键词:福利文化;福利理念;欧洲社会福利制度 欧洲是福利制度的诞生地,也是福利制度发展和改革的集中地。然而欧洲内部的社会福利制度也存在着差异性。随着学者们对欧洲社会福利制度的研究,福利文化逐渐成为全新的且不可忽视的因素。本文试图从欧洲社会福利文化出发,将欧洲福利制度发展源头追溯至欧洲福利文化渊源,由此来探索欧洲社会福利制度在产生和演进过程中的差异性。 一、欧洲社会核心文化价值观 欧洲社会的科学、法律和伦理的源头都可以追溯到希腊哲学、罗马法律和____道德这三者。希腊哲学指导人们区分真假,罗马法律则用来指定规则,基督____教伦理主要用来辨别善恶,这三者是欧洲社会起源的是非标准。欧洲社会文化发展的渊源也必然追溯到古希腊文化、古罗马文化以及古希伯来文化。 (一)“个人为本”的价值观 欧洲 传统文化 的主流价值观具有明显的个人主义色彩。古希腊文化中倡导发扬个人人格。而____教义中宣称人人平等,人生来就有罪,但只要能过通过苦难的考验,即可进入天堂。个人为本价值观最直接的体现就是文艺复兴运动,其倡导的科学、自由和个性解放的人本精神是整个欧洲或西方文化个人之上特征的基础,“天赋人权”的思想理念开始渗入到欧洲文化的各个方面,欧洲社会福利文化也不例外。 (二)“博爱互助”的价值观 欧洲传统文化与东方传统文化最明显的不同在于,东方传统文化过于强调以血缘关系为纽带的差序之爱,欧洲则主张淡化血缘,主张普遍的博爱精神。____主张不分远近亲疏的普遍之爱,强调对弱者的爱。基督____不嫌弃罪人等被社会遗弃的人,也不敌视和自己意见不合的人。基督____普遍的博爱精神带有浓厚的普世主义色彩。这种以博爱为基础的基督____和互助的价值观也成为欧洲社会福利制度建立和发展的基础价值观。 (三)“自由民主”的文化传统 民主和自由是欧洲社会文化标榜的基础价值观。民主最初发源于古希腊文化中,最初只是具有社会学意义,后来则形成政治生活中的原则和体制。古希腊文化中的民主指一种由公民集体行使政治权力的统治形式,从而把民主与专制独裁和无政府状态区分开来。古罗马的罗马法确立的公民的合法权利和义务较早地论证了国家和个人的全系,以及政体思想中的分权和制衡观念,构成了现代民主政体的重要基础。 此外,文艺复兴运动和新教徒的理论与实践破除了中世纪等级制度,提高了个人在社会中的地位和价值,促进了有利于民主成长的观念和形势的发展。 二、欧洲核心文化对构建福利制度的影响 在欧洲社会发展过程中,其核心文化基本上是围绕着宗教教义的发展和变化而产生的,尤其是在欧洲占统治地位的____就是当时社会福利制度的福利文化来源,基督____直接指导这各种宗教团体的慈善活动。 (一)宗教关怀形成福利萌芽 ____教义强调“爱人如己”,认为人类生命价值的神圣与善待需要帮助之人的可贵,并用行善作为基本教义来约束教徒。随着基督____的扩展,“爱人如己”的博爱精神也开始扩展。初期的“爱人如己”只是体现在基督____对贫困者的关爱或信徒之间的扶持。而之后基督____数量的增长也促使基督____的加强,基督____也开始拥有越来越多的行政权力,关爱社会所有贫困者也逐渐成为基督____任。即使在宗教改革后,教会权利缩小的情况下,宗教的慈善救助依然是社会福利制度的重要环节和补充保障。 早期的____教会所开展的福利保障主要体现了对社会弱者的关爱,如由教会创办老年之家收留孤寡老人,满足老年人的生存需要;教会创办孤儿院来救济孤儿等。此外,基督____关注对病人的关注与救治,建立了世界上最早的志愿性质的机构――医院。 (二)博爱互助推动社团保障 随着宗教慈善活动在社会发展中越来越多,其救助弱者的理念逐渐开始派生出弱者互助的概念,形成帮助有困难的人是一种自愿的、合乎道义的行为准则。行业协会作为社团保障的雏形开始出现。商业的发展、商品经济的繁荣促使了商人行会、手工业者行会的空前发展。这些行会的产生和发展都具有民主和互助的精神,行会一方面推动了商品经济的再发展,另一方面保障了行会内部成员的经济安全。从本质上而言,行会是一种由团体对其成员所保证的基本生存保障制度,也是现代社会 保险 制度起源的组织渊源。 (三)个人权利弱化了家庭保障功能 欧洲家长制的价值观认为,家长权利的获得不是基于血缘关系而是基于财产占有权,以此拥有人身支配权。而随着私有制进入家庭内部,个体家庭中父子、兄弟乃至夫妻各自拥有私人财产,这就为每个成员的人格独立奠定了基础。法律关系、权利关系也就必然进入家庭内部,成为家庭成员的主要关系。独立人格促使人们对个人权利非常重视,公民意识的觉醒也促使人们对自我权利的要求更为细致和精确,越来越多的社会保障责任由政府和社会进行分担,从另一个方面而言,家庭的保障功能逐渐弱化。这对欧洲社会福利制度的形成也产生了重要影响。 三、欧洲社会福利制度的思想渊源 由于地域、宗教、历史发展等因素的差异,欧洲社会福利制度的思想来源也各不相同。尤其是北欧国家、西欧国家和南欧国家在社会福利文化的形成与构建过程中有很大不同,因此导致了这三个地域的社会福利制度上的差异性。 (一)北欧:合作的社会民主主义 以瑞典为代表的北欧国家属于典型的合作式集体主义福利文化,瑞典政府为全体国民建立了“从摇篮到坟墓”的全方位的社会福利制度,其不仅保障覆盖面很宽,其保障水平也很高。这种全方位的国家化福利模式的基础就是来源于新教路德教义的“合作”的集体主义福利文化。 瑞典是典型的____信仰的国家,其国民大部分信仰基督____教派。路德教义个人与教会好不妥协的精神导致了教会和国家的民主原则。路德教义中不排斥政府对国民的福利保障责任,而且不主张教会有超越国家的垄断权利。在路德教义的影响之下,瑞典形成了“合作”的文化传统,并且对社会民主党价值观的形成产生了深刻影响。社民党执政的理念奉行“中立”政策,对内实行“团结、合作”的政策,倾力于建立完善的、高水平的、覆盖全民的福利国家,并由国家供给福利资源。瑞典福利国家制度的价值观念是合作、博爱、自由与平等。在对待社会福利方面,社会民主党强调平等与民主化,认为福利国家能够通过和平手段达到消除贫穷和实现平等,并最终形成社会一体化的价值理念。正是这些主张构成了瑞典社会民主党的指导思想原则和追求的价值目标,并通过长期执政将其有机结合到瑞典的福利制度安排中,从而形成了独具特色的瑞典合作式国家化福利模式。 (二)西欧:自助的保守主义 德国是西欧国家中社会福利制度比较有特色的国家,其原因在于德国是世界上第一个以社会保险作为制度保障的国家,其社会保障制度的发展与其自助的福利理念有很大关系。 德国是以“法团主义”的保守主义意识形态观作为其福利文化基础,强调国家、家庭与市民社会的协调与平衡。保守主义文化观强调阶级协调、社会团结,倡导集体主义,崇尚社会团结,把社会保障的制定看作是阶级之间相互妥协的过程,这种福利文化观鼓励强有力的市民社会的形成。 德国构建社会保障的思想主要来源于德国社会市场经济思想,其基本特点是在强调市场作用的同时,注意社会公正与社会平等的发展。德国强调社会政策与经济政策的一致性,社会福利政策执行的效率取决于国民经济健康有序发展,社会政策不能间接损害国民经济生产率,也不能违背市场经济制度的基本原则。这一原则也就决定了德国在面临危机时仍能从容面对,仅仅通过政策的调整来缓解并走出危机,并保障其经济发展的有序。此外,德国主张个人享受福利权利必须与义务相对应,集体性社会福利必须有限度。政府通过有效的社会福利政策,促使国民摆脱原始的利己主义、进行自我发展。 (三)南欧:父爱主义的天主教福利观 以希腊为代表的南欧国家社会福利文化的核心是天主教福利观形成的国家非干预意识形态观,施行家庭―市民社会主供的福利资源供给制度,家庭和教会在福利供给方面占主导地位。天主教的意识形态观强调社会网络、社会互动和社会意义,倡导家庭伦理,主张家庭福利和使用社会资源。天主教坚持家庭时最基本的社会单位,反对国家干预,倡导国家“辅助性原则”的意识形态。因此,希腊最初的福利文化来源于天主教意识形态观,强调家庭伦理观念的家庭福利主义。 四、欧洲社会福利文化对中国的启示 社会福利制度安排是其自身所具备的福利文化的外在反应,深厚的福利文化根基对构建社会福利体系具有重要作用。本文通过对欧洲社会福利制度文化渊源进行探究和分析,从而针对我国未来构建社会福利文化得出一些启示和 经验 。 (一)坚持发扬传统核心文化理念 根据前文对瑞典、德国和希腊社会福利文化的分析,可以看到各国的社会福利思想理念都和本国的传统文化中密不可分,甚至可以说正是传统文化的精髓在历史的沉淀中逐渐形成了社会福利思想理念。在国家发展过程中,文化作为软实力一直在潜移默化地影响着每一代国民,因此,传统文化的力量不可忽视。尤其就我国目前的状况而言,国家经济处于高速发展的阶段,公民意识逐渐觉醒,市民社会的力量在加强,在这种社会转型的复杂背景下,外来思想理念的诱惑力极强,在吸收其他福利思想的同时,必须要保持传统文化的精髓,发扬中国本土文化对国民的强大影响力,将传统文化与现代理念结合起来,构建适合我国国情的社会福利文化。 (二)引进多元保障新理念 孝道的家庭福利文化是中国自古以来形成的最为深入人心的理念,家庭保障作用在中国社会福利发展过程中一直呈现出强大的力量。而随着我国发展面临的新环境和新问题,家庭保障已经无法支撑整个社会保障体系。尤其随着公民意识的觉醒,政府对社会保障的承担责任过重,这就导致了社会保障的水平过低以及不公平现象的出现。因此,中国未来社会保障体系构建的一个重要理念就是多元化主体参与的多元福利,即引入政府、社会、个体与家庭等多个主体参与社会保障。 参考文献: [1]林闽钢.福利多元主义的兴起及其政策实践[J].社会2002:36-37. [2]张军.从慈悲正义到公民权利:西方福利文化下社会保障制度的历史演进[J].学习与实践.2013(1):97-103. [3]张军,陈元刚.中西社会保障制度的福利文化比较论纲[J].社会保障研究.2011(1):77-87. 关于欧洲文化的论文篇2 浅析欧洲认同的文化根源 摘 要:欧洲认同价值观的形成在很大程度上是欧洲人对其同源文化的延伸。作为欧洲文明的渊源,古希腊罗马文化奠定了欧洲的文化传统。在中世纪____大一统的文化氛围中,基督____成为欧洲人长期共同秉承的精神家园。古希腊罗马文化和基督____响早已深入到了欧洲人的血液中,成为欧洲认同的重要文化根源。 关键词:欧洲认同;文化根源;古希腊罗马文化; ____ 欧洲,不仅是一个地理概念,更是一种文化凝聚的象征,在此基础上形成的欧洲认同是欧洲人对自身特性的定位,更是对欧洲超越经济范畴的强大文化凝聚力的肯定。“欧洲在伦理领域存在着某种文化的共同性。”[1] (P251) 要正确认识欧洲认同的深刻内涵就必须探究其历史发展中的文化共同性。从整个欧洲的历史演变及其文化传统来看,欧洲认同的实质即是对希腊罗马文化和____文化的认同。 一、欧洲文明的起源—古希腊罗马文化 在古希腊时代,现在“欧洲”所指的这片土地被称作“欧罗巴”,来源于希腊神话。随着地中海地区以及现在的中欧、西欧广大地区被罗马帝国所征服,希腊罗马文明也随之而来。人类文明的中心开始由地中海区域向西转移,希腊的文化成就和罗马的帝国统治长远而深入地影响着“欧罗巴”地区,为其同源性文化与社会意识的形成奠定了坚实的基础。诚然,对古希腊罗马文明的高度认同成为了欧洲认同形成的根本因素。恩格斯曾指出:“没有希腊文化和罗马帝国所奠定的基础,就没有现代的欧洲。”[2] (P506) 古希腊文化是欧洲文明之源,它在诸多领域如哲学,艺术,自然科学等领域的研究成就以及其繁荣发达的城邦政治文化为欧洲创立了规范。对真理的不懈追求和理性精神是古希腊文化的核心,也构成了欧洲文化的精神主线。古希腊重视对各种知识进行分类研究,将哲学独立为一门科学。此外,古希腊的民主政治制度构成了其发达城邦文化的精髓。它所体现的平等和公正的原则保障了公民的权益。古希腊的民主制度开创了世界民主政治的先河,是现代民主制的基石。它促进了近代欧洲文化中民主,平等,自由等思想的诞生。正如欧洲人所言,“由于精神上和思想上的继承性,我们的身上有着希腊的传统,它的深远影响历经世纪的更替而不衰,它以理性的光芒和没的甘露感染了所有的欧洲人,即使我们想要避开它的影响也不可能。”[3] (P2) 总之,古希腊文化在诸多领域的成就对欧洲文化产生的影响构成了欧洲认同文化根源的重要组成部分。 古罗马文化对欧洲文明的影响不亚于古希腊文化。罗马人征服了欧洲这块土地,并在其统治范围内推行其高度文明的制度和文化,促进了欧洲地区同一性的文化传统的形成与发展。古罗马文化对欧洲文明的最主要贡献是罗马法和共和制。颁布于公元533年的《查士丁尼法典》中许多原则和制度被近代以来的欧洲法制所采用,如其在诸如公民权利平等原则上所倡导的人人平等,公正至上的精神,权利主体中的法人制度,物权制度,契约制度等。罗马法奠定了欧洲文化中强调个人自由与权力的传统,成为欧洲法律制度的蓝本。罗马共和制有利于政治权力的分割,使权力相互制衡,相互监督,为近代欧洲各国所效仿。古罗马文化对欧洲文明的影响涉及到欧洲人社会生活的方方面面。“西方任何一个重要城市都可找到某些罗马的东西。”[4] (P96) 二、欧洲认同的精神家园—— ____ ____在欧洲人共同的习俗, 思维方式 ,价值观的形成中产生了深远的影响。这些都是“在____文明若干个世纪的浸染渗透之中积累起来的欧洲人特有的‘思想底格’和‘心性’”。[5](p135-136) ____文化将欧洲各民族紧密地联系在一起,对“欧洲观念”的形成起到至关重要的作用。 在欧洲,统一的____世界的形成是在中世纪。“欧洲认同是由基督____来和地中海各民族与北方部落的人们独特的混合而决定地形成的”。[6](P118) 基督____符合在精神上教化公民的原则,被确定为罗马的国教。教会和政权相结合,政教合一,教会的权力大大增强,使得基督____响得到最大化的实现。因此,在罗马的统治下,基督____传播,欧洲地区的各个蛮族相继信奉基督____会的各个阶层民众都成为了基督____基督____,系统而富有逻辑性的教义将欧洲人征服,“不仅成为他们的启蒙思想,还成为了他们精神世界和现实生活指导原则。”[7]基督____在一定程度上成为了高级文化的载体,它促进了欧洲人的思想开化。这一过程使得基督____欧洲人精神世界的统治者,奠定了其在欧洲人统一意识形态与价值观念中的统治地位。作为中世纪意识形态的主导,基督____条成为了欧洲文化中伦理道德的规范。基督____世纪时期有着其整体化的机构与活动。其教义的传播者教士是文化的象征,而其物质载体修道院则成为教化民众的场所,是当时社会主要的文化中心。修道院因其重要的文化地位和影响成为现代大学的前身。可以说,基督____洲人统一性的精神统治在欧洲认同观念的形成中起到了中流砥柱的作用。 综上所述,欧洲认同观念有着深刻的文化根源。古希腊罗马文化是欧洲文明的起源,____文化是欧洲人共同的精神家园,二者为欧洲认同的形成奠定了坚实的基础。只有深入探究欧洲认同形成的文化根源才能深刻地认识欧洲及其不断加强的一体化进程。 参考文献: [1] 郑晓云. 文化认同与文化变迁[M]. 北京:中国社会科学出版社,1993. [2] 马克思, 恩格斯. 马克思恩格斯选集(第四卷)[M]. 北京:人民出版社, 1972. [3] 伊迪丝·汉密尔顿. 希腊方式—通向西方文明的源泉 [M]. 杭州:浙江人民出版社,1988. [4] W. Fleming. Arts and Ideas [M]. New York, 1968. [5] 陈乐民,周弘. 欧洲文明扩张史 [M]. 北京:东方出版中心,1999. [6] Anthony Pagden. The Idea of Europe [M]. Woodrow Wilson Center Press and Cambridge University Press. . 2002. [7] 惠一鸣. 欧洲联盟发展史(上). 北京:中国社会科学出版社,2003年第1版.

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