润风水尚
中华饮食，源远流长。在这自古为礼仪之邦，讲究民以食为天的国度里，饮食礼仪自然成为饮食文化的一个重要部分。中国的饮宴礼仪号称始于周公，千百年的演进，当然不会再有“孟光接了梁鸿案”那样的日子，但也还是终于形成大家普遍接受的一套饮食进餐礼仪，是古代饮食礼制的继承和发展。饮食礼仪因宴席的性质，目的而不同；不同的地区，也是千差万别。简介中餐礼仪随着中西饮食文化的不断交流，中餐不仅是中国人的传统饮食习惯，还越来越受到外国人的青睐。而这种看似最平常不过的中式餐饮，用餐时的礼仪却是有一番讲究的。 中餐的餐具主要有杯、盘、碗、碟、筷、匙六种。在正式的宴会上，水杯放在菜盘上方，酒杯放在右上方。筷子与汤匙可放在专用的座子上，或放在纸套中。公筷顺序公用的筷子和汤匙最好放在专用的座子上。 中餐上菜的顺序一般是：先公筷上冷盘，后上热菜，最后上甜食和水果。 用餐前，服务员为每人送上的第一道湿毛巾是擦手用的，最好不要用它去擦脸。在宴席上，上鸡、龙虾、水果时，有时送上一小水盂（铜盆、瓷碗或水晶玻璃缸），水上飘有玫瑰花瓣或柠檬片，供洗手用（曾有人误为饮料，以致成为笑话）。洗时两手轮流沾湿指头，轻轻涮洗，然后用餐巾或小毛巾擦干。划分古代的食礼是按阶层划分：宫廷，官府，行帮，民间等。现代食礼则简化为：主人（东道），客人了。作为客人，赴宴讲究仪容，根据关系亲疏决定是否携带小礼品或好酒。赴宴守时守约；抵达后，先根据认识与否，自报家门，或由东道进行引见介绍，听从东道安排。相关书籍[1]然后入座：这个“英雄排座次”，是整个中国食礼中最重要的一项。从古到今，因为桌具的演进，所以座位的排法也相应变化。总的来讲，座次“尚左尊东” “面朝大门为尊”家宴首席为辈分最高的长者，末席为最低者；家庭宴请，首席为地位最尊的客人，客主人则居末席。首席未落座，都不能落座，首席未动手，都不能动手，巡酒时自首席按顺序一路敬下，再饮。更讲究的，如果来报有人来，无论尊卑地位，全席之人应出迎。若是圆桌，则正对大门的为主客，左手边依次为2，4，6右手边依次为3，5，7直至汇合。若为八仙桌，如果有正对大门的座位，则正对大门一侧的右位为主客，如果不正对大门，则面东的一侧右席为首席。然后首席的左手边坐开去为2，4，6，8（8在对面），右手边为3，5，7（7在正对面）。如果为大宴，桌与桌间的排列讲究首席居前居中，左边依次2，4，6席，右边为3，5，7席。根据主客身份，地位，亲疏分坐。筷子的用法介绍筷子是中餐中最主要的进餐用具。握筷姿势应规范，时餐需要使用其他餐具时，应先将筷子放下。筷子一定要放在筷子筷子架上，不能放在杯子或盘子上，还则容易碰掉。如果不小心把筷子碰掉在地上，可请服务员换一双。在用餐过程中，已经举起筷子，但不知道该吃哪道菜，这时不可将筷子在各碟菜中来回移动或在空中游弋。不要用筷子叉取食物放进嘴里，或用舌头舔食筷子上的附着物，更不要用筷子去推动碗、盘和杯子。有事暂时离席，不能把筷子插在碗里，应把它轻放在筷子架上。注意在席间说话的时候，不要把筷子当道具，随意乱舞；或是用筷子敲打碗碟桌面，用筷子指点他人。每次用完筷子要轻轻地放下，尽量不要发出响声。使用筷子的礼仪中国的筷子是十分讲究的，“筷子”又称“箸（筋）”，远在商代就有用象牙制成的筷子。《史记•宋微子世家》中记载“纣始为象箸”。用象牙做箸，是富贵的标志。做筷子的材料也不同，考究的有金筷、银筷、象牙筷，一般的有骨筷和竹筷，现在有塑料筷。湖南的筷子最长，有的长达两尺左右；日本的筷子短而尖，这是由于吃鱼片等到片状食物的缘故。筷子传入日本是唐代，现在它是世界上生产使用筷子最多的国家，平均年产130亿双筷子，其中90％，是只用一次的“剖箸”。日本人还把每年的8月4人日定为“筷子节”，并且在使用筷子时讲究”忌八筷”。中国使用筷子，在人类文明史上是一桩值得骄傲和推祟的科学发明。李政道论证中华民族是一个优秀种族时说：“中国人早在春秋战国时代就发明了筷子。如此简单的两根东西，却高妙绝伦地应用了物理学上的杠杆原理。筷子是人类手指的延伸，手指能做的事，它都能做，且不怕高热，不怕寒冻，真是高明极了。比较起来，西方人大概到16世纪、17世纪才发明了刀叉，但刀叉哪能跟筷子相比呢?”日本的学者曾测定，人在用筷子夹食物时，有80多个关节和50条肌肉在运动，并且与脑神经有关。因此，用筷子吃饭使人手巧，可以训练大脑使之灵活，外国人对这两根神奇的棍状物能施展出夹、挑、舀、撅等功能钦羡不已，并以自己能使用它进食而感到高兴。在长期的生括实践中，人们对使用筷子也形成了一些礼仪上的忌讳：一忌敲筷。即在等待就餐时，不能坐在餐边，一手拿一根筷子随意敲打，或用筷子敲打碗盏或茶杯。二忌掷筷。在餐前发放筷子时，要把筷子一双双理顺，然后轻轻地放在每个人的餐桌前；距较远时，可以请人递过去，不能随手掷在桌上。三忌叉筷。筷子不能一横一竖交叉摆放，不能一根是大头，一根是小头。筷子要摆放在碗的旁边，不能搁在碗上。四忌插筷。在用餐中途因故需暂时离开时，要把筷子轻轻搁在桌子上或餐碟边，不能插在饭碗里。五忌挥筷。在夹菜时，不能把筷子在菜盘里挥来挥去，上下乱翻，遇到别人也来夹菜时，要 有意避让，谨防“筷子打架”。六忌舞筷。在说话时，不要把筷子当作刀具，在餐桌上乱舞；也不要在请别人用菜时，把筷子戳到别人面前，这样做是失礼的。席位排列综述中餐的席位排列中餐礼仪2，关系到来宾的身份和主人给予对方的礼遇，所以是一项重要的内容。中餐席位的排列，在不同情况下，有一定的差异。可以分为桌次排列和位次排列两方面。桌次排列在中餐宴请活动中，往往采用圆桌布置菜肴、酒水。排列圆桌的尊卑次序，有两种情况。第一种情况，是由两桌组成的小型宴请。这种情况，又可以分为两桌横排和两桌竖排的形式。当两桌横排时，桌次是以左为尊，以右为卑。这里所说的右和左，是由面对正门的位置来确定的。当两桌竖排时，桌次讲究以远为上，以近为下。这里所讲的远近，是以距离正门的远近而言。第二种情况，是由三桌或三桌以上的桌数所组成的宴请。在安排多桌宴请的桌次时，除了要注意“面门定位”、“以右为尊”、“以远为上”等规则外，还应兼顾其他各桌距离主桌的远近。通常，距离主桌越近，桌次越高；距离主桌越远、桌次越低。在安排桌次时，所用餐桌的大小、形状要基本一致。除主桌可以略大外，其他餐桌都不要过大或过小。为了确保在宴请时赴宴者及时、准确地找到自己所在的桌次，可以在请柬上注明对方所在的桌次、在宴会厅入口悬挂宴会桌次排列示意图、安排引位员引导来宾按桌就坐，或者在每张餐桌上摆放桌次牌（用阿拉伯数字书写）。位次排列宴请时，每张餐桌上的具体位次也有主次尊卑的分别。排列位次的基本方法有四条，它们往往会同时发挥作用。方法一，是主人大都应面对正门而坐，并在主桌就坐。方法二，是举行多桌宴请时，每桌都要有一位主桌主人的代表在座。位中餐礼仪[2]置一般和主桌主人同向，有时也可以面向主桌主人。方法三，是各桌位次的尊卑，应根据距离该桌主人的远近而定，以近为上，以远为下。方法四，是各桌距离该桌主人相同的位次，讲究以右为尊，即以该桌主人面向为准，右为尊，左为卑。另外，每张餐桌上所安排的用餐人数应限在10人以内，最好是双数。比如，六人、八人、十人。人数如果过多，不仅不容易照顾，而且也可能坐不下。根据上面四个位次的排列方法，圆桌位次的具体排列可以分为两种具体情况。它们都是和主位有关。第一种情况：每桌一个主位的排列方法。特点是每桌只有一名主人，主宾在右首就坐，每桌只有一个谈话中心。第二种情况：每桌两个主位的排列方法。特点是主人夫妇在同一桌就坐，以男主人为第一主人，女主人为第二主人，主宾和主宾夫人分别在男女主人右侧就坐。每桌从而客观上形成了两个谈话中心，如图9-5和如图9-6。如果主宾身份高于主人，为表示尊重，也可以安排在主人位子上坐，而请主人坐在主宾的位子上。为了便于来宾准确无误地在自己位次上就坐，除招待人员和主人要及时加以引导指示外，应在每位来宾所属座次正前方的桌面上，事先放置醒目的个人姓名座位卡。举行涉外宴请时，座位卡应以中、英文两种文字书写。中国的惯例是，中文在上，英文在下。必要时，座位卡的两面都书写用餐者的姓名。排列便餐的席位时，如果需要进行桌次的排列，可以参照宴请时桌次的排列进行。位次的排列，可以遵循四个原则。一是右高左低原则两人一同并排就坐，通常以右为上座，以左为下座。这是因为中餐上菜时多以顺时针方向为上菜方向，居右坐的因此要比居左坐的优先受到照顾。二是中座为尊原则三人一同就坐用餐，坐在中间的人在位次上高于两侧的人。三是面门为上原则用餐的时候，按照礼仪惯例，面对正门者是上座，背对正门者是下座。四是特殊原则高档餐厅里，室内外往往有优美的景致或高雅的演出，供用餐者欣赏。这时候，观赏角度最好的座位是上座。在某些中低档餐馆用餐时，通常以靠墙的位置为上座，靠过道的位置为下座。用餐方式综述几种常见的用餐方式主要介绍宴会、家宴、便餐、工作餐（包括自助餐）等具体形式下的礼仪规范。宴会通常指的是以用餐为形式的社交聚会。可以分为正式宴会和非正式宴会餐具两种类型。正式宴会，是一种隆重而正规的宴请。它往往是为宴请专人而精心安排的，在比较高档的饭店，或是其他特定的地点举行的，讲究排场、气氛的大型聚餐活动。对于到场人数、穿着打扮、席位排列、菜肴数目、音乐演奏、宾主致词等，往往都有十分严谨的要求和讲究。非正式宴会，也称为便宴，也适用于正式的人际交往，但多见于日常交往。它的形式从简，偏重于人际交往，而不注重规模、档次。一般来说，它只安排相关人员参加，不邀请配偶，对穿着打扮、席位排列、菜肴数目往往不作过高要求，而且也不安排音乐演奏和宾主致词。家宴也就是在家里举行的宴会。相对于正式宴会而言，家宴最重要的是要制造亲切、友好、自然的气氛，使赴宴的宾主双方轻松、自然、随意，彼此增进交流，加深了解，促进信任。通常，家宴在礼仪上往往不作特殊要求。为了使来宾感受到主人的重视和友好，基本上要由女主人亲自下厨烹饪，男主人充当服务员；或男主人下厨，女主人充当服务员，来共同招待客人，使客人产生宾至如归的感觉。如果要参加宴会，那么你就需要注意，首先必须把自己打扮得整齐大方，这是对别人也是对自己的尊重。还要按主人邀请的时间准时赴宴。除酒会外，一般宴会都请客人提前半小时到达。如因故在宴会开始前几分钟到达，不算失礼。但迟到就显得对主人不够尊敬，非常失礼了。当走进主人家或宴会厅时，应首先跟主人打招呼。同时。对其他客人，不管认不认识，都要微笑点头示意或握手问好；对长者要主动起立，让座问安；对女宾举止庄重，彬彬有礼。入席时，自己的座位应听从主人或招待人员的安排，因为有的宴会主人早就安排好了。如果座位没定，应注意正对门口的座位是上座，背对门的座位是下座。应让身份高者、年长者以及女士先入座，自己再找适当的座位坐下。入座后坐姿端正，脚踏在本人座位下，不要任意伸直或两腿不停摇晃，手肘不得靠桌沿，或将手放在邻座椅背上。入座后，不要旁若无人，也不要眼睛直盯盘中菜肴，显出迫不及待的样子。可以和同席客人简单交谈。用餐时应该正装，不要脱外衣，更不要中途脱外衣。一般是主人示意开始后再进行。就餐的动作要文雅，夹菜动作要轻。而且要把菜先放到自己的小盘里，然后再用筷子夹起放进嘴。送食物进嘴时，要小口进食，两肘向外靠，不要向两边张开，以免碰到邻座。不要在吃饭喝饮料、喝汤发出声响。用餐时，如要用摆在同桌其他客人面前的调味品，先向别人打个招呼再拿；如果太远，要客气地请人代劳。如在用餐时非得需要剔牙，要用左手或手帕遮掩，右手用牙签轻轻剔牙。喝酒的时候，一味地给别人劝酒、灌酒，吆五喝六，特别是给不胜酒力的人劝酒、灌酒，都是失礼的表现。如果宴会没有结束，但你已用好餐，不要随意离席，要等主人和主宾餐毕先起身离席，其他客人才能依次离席。便餐也就是家常便饭。用便餐的地点往往不同，礼仪讲究也最少。只要用餐者讲究公德，注意卫生、环境和秩序，在其他方面就不用介意过多。工作餐是在商务交往中具有业务关系的合作伙伴，为进行接触、保持联系、交换信息或洽谈生意而用用餐的形式进行的商务聚会。它不同于正式的工作餐、正式宴会和亲友们的会餐。它重在一种氛围，意在以餐会友，创造出有利于进一步进行接触的轻松、愉快、和睦、融洽的氛围。是借用餐的形式继续进行的商务活动，把餐桌充当会议桌或谈判桌。工作餐一般规模较小，通常在中午举行，主人不用发正式请柬，客人不用提前向主人正式进行答复，时间、地点可以临时选择。出于卫生方面的考虑，最好采取分餐制或公筷制的方式。在用工作餐的时候，还会继续商务上的交谈。但这时候需要注意的是，这种情况下不要像在会议室一样，进行录音、录像，或是安排专人进行记录。非有必要进行记录的时候，应先获得对方首肯。千万不要随意自行其事，好像对对方不信任似的。发现对方对此表示不满的时候，更不可以坚持这么做。工作餐是主客双方“商务洽谈餐”，所以不适合有主题之外的人加入。如果正好遇到熟人，可以打个招呼，或是将其与同桌的人互作一下简略的介绍。但不要擅作主张，将朋友留下。万一有不识相的人“赖着”不走，可以委婉地下逐客令“您很忙，我就不再占用您宝贵时间了”或是“我们明天再联系。我会主动打电话给您”。自助餐是近年来借鉴西方的现代用餐方式。它不排席位，也不安排统一的菜单，是把能提供的全部主食、菜肴、酒水陈列在一起，根据用餐者的个人爱好，自己选择、加工、享用。采取这种方式，可以节省费用，而且礼仪讲究不多，宾主都方便；用餐的时候每个人都可以悉听尊便。在举行大型活动，招待为数众多的来宾时，这样安排用餐，也是最明智的选择。地点的选择中餐特别是中餐宴会具体时间的安排，根据人们的用餐习惯，依照用餐时间的不同，分为早餐、午餐、晚餐三种。确定正式宴请的具体时间，主要要遵从民俗惯例。而且主人不仅要从自己的客观能力出发，更要讲究主随客便，要优先考虑被邀请者，特别是主宾的实际情况，不要对这一点不闻不问。如果可能，应该先和主宾协商一下，力求两厢方便。至少，也要尽可能提供几种时间上的选择，以显示自己的诚意，并要对具体长度进行必要的控制。另外，在社交聚餐的时候，用餐地点的选择也非常重要。首先要环境优雅，宴请不仅仅是为了“吃东西”，也要“吃文化”。要是用餐地点档次过低，环境不好，即使菜肴再有特色，也会使宴请大打折扣。在可能的情况下，一定要争取选择清静、优雅的地点用餐。其次是卫生条件良好，在确定社交聚餐的地点，一定要看卫生状况怎么样。如果用餐地点太脏、太乱，不仅卫生问题让人担心，而且还会破坏用餐者的食欲。还要充分考虑到，聚餐者来去交通是不是方便，有没有公共交通线路通过，有没有停车场，是不是要为聚餐者预备交通工具等一系列的具体问题，以及该地点设施是否完备。菜肴的选择根据人们的饮食习惯，与其说是“请吃饭”，还不如说成“请吃菜”。所以对菜单的安排马虎不得。它主要涉及到点菜和准备菜单两方面的问题。点菜时，不仅要吃饱、吃好，而且必须量力而行。如果为了讲排场、装门面，而在点菜时大点、特点，甚至乱点一通，不仅对自己没好处，而且还会招人笑话。这时，一定要心中有数，力求做到不超支，不乱花，不铺张浪费。可以点套餐或包桌。这样费用固定，菜肴的档次和数量相对固定，省事。也可以根据“个人预算”，在用餐时现场临时点菜。这样不但自由度较大，而且可以兼顾个人的财力和口味。被请者在点菜时，一是告诉作东者，自己没有特殊要求，请随便点，这实际上正是对方欢迎的。或是认真点上一个不太贵、又不是大家忌口的菜，再请别人点。别人点的菜，无论如何都不要挑三拣四。一顿标准的中餐大菜，不管什么风味，上菜的次序都相同。通常，首先是冷盘，接下来是热炒，随后是主菜，然后上点心和汤，最后上果盘。如果上咸点心的话，讲究上咸汤；如果上甜点心的话，就要上甜汤。不管是不是吃大菜，了解中餐标准的上菜次序，不仅有助于在点菜时巧作搭配，而且还可以避免因为不懂而出洋相、闹笑话。在宴请前，主人需要事先对菜单进行再三斟酌。在准备菜单的时候，主人要着重考虑哪些菜可以选用、哪些菜不能用。优先考虑的菜肴有四类：第一类，有中餐特色的菜肴。宴请外宾的时候，这一条更要重视。像炸春卷、煮元宵、蒸饺子、狮子头、宫爆鸡丁等，并不是佳肴美味，但因为具有鲜明的中国特色，所以受到很多外国人的推崇。第二类，有本地特色的菜肴。比如西安的羊肉泡馍，湖南的毛家红烧肉，上海的红烧狮子头，北京的涮羊肉，在那里宴请外地客人时，上这些特色菜，恐怕要比千篇一律的生猛海鲜更受好评。第三类，本餐馆的特色菜。很多餐馆都有自己的特色菜。上一份本餐馆的特色菜，能说明主人的细心和对被请者的尊重。第四类，主人的拿手菜。举办家宴时，主人一定要当众露上一手，多做几个自己拿手菜。其实，所谓的拿手菜不一定十全十美。只要主人亲自动手，单凭这一条，足以让对方感觉到你的尊重和友好。在安排菜单时，还必须考虑来宾的饮食禁忌，特别是要对主宾的饮食禁忌高度重视。这些饮食方面的禁忌主要有四条：宗教的饮食禁忌，一点也不能疏忽大意。例如，穆斯林通常不吃猪肉，并且不喝酒。国内的佛教徒不吃荤腥食品，它不仅指的是不吃肉食，而且包括葱、蒜、韭菜、芥末等气味刺鼻的食物。出于健康的原因，对于某些食品，也有所禁忌。比如，心脏病、脑血管、脉硬化、高血压和中风后遗症的人，不适合吃狗肉，肝炎病人忌吃羊肉和甲鱼，胃肠炎、胃溃汤等消化系统疾病的人也不合适吃甲鱼，高血压、高胆固醇患者，要少喝鸡汤等。不同地区，人们的饮食偏好往往不同。对于这一点，在安排菜单时要兼顾。比如，湖南省份的人普遍喜欢吃辛辣食物，少吃甜食。英美国家的人通常不吃宠物、稀有动物、动物内脏、动物的头部和脚爪。有些职业，出于某种原因，在餐饮方面往往也有各自不同的特殊禁忌。例如，国家公务员在执行公务时不准吃请，在公务宴请时不准大吃大喝，不准超过国家规定的标准用餐，不准喝烈性酒。再如，驾驶员工作期间不得喝酒。要是忽略了这一点，还有可能使对方犯错误。在隆重而正式的宴会上，主人选定的菜单也可以在精心书写后，每人一份，用餐者不但餐前心中有数，而且餐后也可以留作纪念。餐具的使用注意事项综述和西餐相比较，中餐的一大特色就是就餐餐具有所不同。人们主要介绍一下平时经常出现问题的餐具的使用。筷子筷子是中餐最主要的餐具。使用筷子，通常必须成双使用。用筷子取菜、用餐的时候，要注意下面几个“小”问题：一是不论筷子上是否残留着食物，都不要去舔。用舔过的筷子去中餐餐具夹菜，是不是有点倒人胃口？二是和人交谈时，要暂时放下筷子，不能一边说话，一边像指挥棒似地舞着筷子。三是不要把筷子竖插放在食物上面。因为这种插法，只在祭奠死者的时候才用。四是严格筷子的职能。筷子只是用来夹取食物的。用来剔牙、挠痒或是用来夹取食物之外的东西都是失礼的。勺子它的主要作用是舀取菜肴、食物。有时，用筷子取食时，也可以用勺子来辅助。尽量不要单用勺子去取菜。用勺子取食物时，不要过满，免得溢出来弄脏餐桌或自己的衣服。在舀取食物后，可以在原处“暂停”片刻，汤汁不会再往下流时，再移回来享用。暂时不用勺子时，应放在自己的碟子上，不要把它直接放在餐桌上，或是让它在食物中“立正”。用勺子取食物后，要立即食用或放在自己碟子里，不要再把它倒回原处。而如果取用的食物太烫，不可用勺子舀来舀去，也不要用嘴对着吹，可以先放到自己的碗里等凉了再吃。不要把勺子塞到嘴里，或者反复吮吸、舔食。盘子稍小点的盘子就是碟子，主要用来盛放食物，在使用方面和碗略同。盘子在餐桌上一般要保持原位，而且不要堆放在一起。需要着重介绍的，是一种用途比较特殊的被称为食碟的盘子。食碟的主要作用，是用来暂放从公用的菜盘里取来享用的菜肴的。用食碟时，一次不要取放过多的菜肴，看起来既繁乱不堪，又像是饿鬼投胎。不要把多种菜肴堆放在一起，弄不好它们会相互“窜味”，不好看，也不好吃。不吃的残渣、骨、刺不要吐在地上、桌上，而应轻轻取放在食碟前端，放的时候不能直接从嘴里吐在食碟上，要用筷子夹放到碟子旁边。如果食碟放满了，可以让服务员换。水杯主要用来盛放清水、汽水、果汁、可乐等软饮料时使用。不要用它来盛酒，也不要倒扣水杯。另外，喝进嘴里的东西不能再吐回水杯。中餐用餐前比较讲究的话，会为每位用餐者上一块湿毛巾。它只能用来擦手。擦手后，应该放回盘子里，由服务员拿走。有时候，在正式宴会结束前，会再上一块湿毛巾。和前者不同的是，它只能用来擦嘴，却不能擦脸、抹汗。牙签尽量不要当众剔牙。非剔不行时，用另一只手掩住口部，剔出来的东西，不要当众观赏或再次入口，也不要随手乱弹，随口乱吐。剔牙后，不要长时间叼着牙签，更不要用来扎取食物。用餐的得体表现任何国家的餐饮，都有自己的传统习惯和寓意，中餐也不例外。比方说，过年少不了鱼，表示“年年有余”；和渔家、海员吃鱼的时候，忌讳把鱼翻身，因为那有“翻船”的意思。用餐的时候，不要吃得摇头摆脑，宽衣解带，满脸油汗，汁汤横流，响声大作。不但失态欠雅，而且还会败坏别人的食欲。可以劝别人多用一些，或是品尝某道菜肴，但不要不由分说，擅自作主，主动为别人夹菜、添饭。不说这样做是不是卫生，而且还会让人勉为其难。取菜的时候，不要左顾右盼，翻来覆去，在公用的菜盘内挑挑拣拣。要是夹起来又放回去，就显得缺乏教养。多人一桌用餐，取菜要注意相互礼让，依次而行，取用适量。不要好吃多吃，争来抢去，而不考虑别人用过没有。够不到的菜，可以请人帮助，不要起身甚至离座去取。用餐期间，不要敲敲打打，比比划划。还要自觉做到不吸烟。用餐时，如果需要有清嗓子、擤鼻涕、吐痰等举动，尽早去洗手间解决。用餐的时候，不要当众修饰。比如，不要梳理头发，化妆补妆，宽衣解带，脱袜脱鞋等。如必要可以去化妆间或洗手间。用餐的时候不要离开座位，四处走动。如果有事要离开，也要先和旁边的人打个招呼，可以说声“失陪了”、“我有事先行一步”等上菜上菜顺序，中餐一般讲究：先凉后热，先炒后烧，咸鲜清淡的先上，甜的味浓味厚的后上，最后是饭菜。有规格的宴席，热菜中的主菜——比如燕窝席里的燕窝，海参宴里的海参，鱼翅宴里的鱼翅，应该先上，即所谓最贵的热菜先上。再辅以溜炒烧扒。大致上菜顺序（茶）-在酒家里，因为要等待，所以先来清口茶。但不是必须的。因为古人喝茶多是单独的。凉菜-冷拼，花拼。热炒-视规模选用滑炒，软炒，干炸，爆，烩，烧，蒸，浇，扒等组合。大菜-（不是必须的）指整只，整块，整条的高贵菜肴，比如一头乳猪，一只全羊，一大块鹿肉什么的。甜菜-包括甜汤，如冰糖莲子，银耳甜汤等点心-一般大宴不供饭，而以糕，饼，团，粉，各种面，包子，饺子等。（饭）-如果还没吃饱水果-爽口，消腻此顺序非一成不变，如水果有时可以算在冷盘里上，点心可以算在热菜里上。较浓的汤菜，应该按热菜上；贵重的汤菜如燕窝等要为热菜中的头道。至于季节的考虑，则还有冬重红烧，红焖，红扒和沙锅，火锅等；夏则清蒸，白汁，清炒，凉拌为主。此外颜色搭配，原材料的多样化也应考虑。
壬生京三郎
Western novels in comparison First, Western novels in the history of the development of Western novels are based on myths and legends of its origin. In ancient times, science developed, out of fear of nature, the working people out of the imagination is the key to many of the world "God", describing the personification of God is a myth; who will describe the deified, that is legend. China opened the world's Pan story, the story of San Juan Five Emperors, the West Greek mythology, Roman mythology, Norse mythology, and so on are all typical works. East and West, the original novel, is closely linked with the history, as historical records complement the event. China Pre-Qin prose in the fable, the Han dynasty in the history books, biographies, the Wei and Jin Zhi, Zhi-person novel; the West of ancient Babylon, "the United States and Ji Jia disabilities epic", in ancient Greece, "Homer's epic," "Aesop's Fables "And so on, fall into this category, fiction, novels such novels have been about the characteristics of fiction, it is still not the literary creation, directly from the private collection record, so this type of fiction plot is relatively simple, writing rough comparison. Ban Gu said, "On the Street Lane words, hearsay are made of" is a novel kind of accurate assessment of the image. China's Tang Dynasty, the novel is only from history and literature become a creativity. Tang Dynasty culture has developed, the author's ideas are more open, the legend came into being at this time, Li Zhaowei "Liu Yi Chuan", Po Chu's "Everlasting Regret," Wolf's "Everlasting Regret Chuan" And so on, are made in accordance with the creation of the legend. For the fictional story of the Tang Dynasty more emphasis on imagination and literary talent, not just the history of the nature of things, but as the history of Zhi Zhi who is also the novel did not stop. The Legend of the Song Dynasty to the novel on a gradual decline, which followed the rise of this so that after processing will become a scholar so many novel and Romance novels such as "Romance of the Three Kingdoms", "Outlaws of the Marsh", "Journey to the West." The author of such novels is the use of private creative and re-created to describe the circumstances of the touching scenes of brilliant and vivid active in shaping the character known, there are obvious story-telling style of language. Here by the redevelopment, it will become an independent literary creation rather than things to come together with the civil process, the representative of this type is the "Golden Lotus", it was an open and ordinary life on the road, the reality is that literature has come a long way The development of the latter's "A Dream of Red Mansions" in ancient China Geng Shiba realism to the novels of the summit. "54" after the novelist began to learn from China's western fiction writing practices, and gradually out a new path. Western novels, is the "Renaissance" after the rapid development of mature. The development of the Middle Ages novel near-stagnation in the West, 14, the end of the century "Renaissance" to overthrow the literature of the Church of control, 15, appeared in the western end of the century to promote freedom of thought and the liberation of personality in order to describe the reality of life and portray characters from all walks of life for the content of the Humanist novels, is to tie in with this type of novel anti-feudal Europe at the time of arising at the same time it also set the novel in the West to human describing the tone of the main things. Jiaqiu Italy's "Decameron", Spain's Cervantes "Don Quixote" is the kind of representative works of fiction. The resulting novel is a classical, elegant favor of its national language to standardize the writing of this novel in 17th century France's most well-developed. As a note on behalf of Corneille's "Cid" neoclassical story of the rise of Western novels have been a language substantially improved. The beginning of the 18th century to promote popular science knowledge, enlightenment of the public consciousness for the purpose of the Enlightenment novels, of which there are relatively well-known German Goethe's "Faust", the United Kingdom Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" and the Swift "Gulliver's Travels" and so on, this type of novel to the emergence of the bourgeois revolution at the time to mold public opinion. In the 19th century, romantic fiction, realistic novels and critical realism novel turn to occupy the leading position in the field of fiction. Romantic novels, such as France Victor Hugo's "Notre Dame de Paris", Goethe's "juvenile Witt of trouble" and so on, imaginative, unusual ideas, language and imaginative, strong feelings. Efforts to reflect the reality of the novel is the essence of life, and depict typical life of a typical phenomenon in the United Kingdom Dickens, France and Germany are of such novels as a representative of the writer. Critical realism novels exposed the efforts of the decadent feudal system and capitalist society, the dark, in-depth criticism of the reality of evil, France Balzac and Maupassant, the United Kingdom of Charlotte, Bronte,. Russia's Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, the United States of a large number of writers such as Mark Twain's works belong to this category. Value today, the three novels in the West is still the most important of the three types of literary fiction. East-West novel on the history of the development of more or less the case. Second, the characteristics of the novel in the West In addition to the basic characteristics of the novel, the story of the West also have their own characteristics are as follows: 1, the traditional Chinese novel attention to the characters, language and the details of the description, in contradiction to the conflict to display the images, but the character of a single, small changes in the absence of the main flu. Western novels are more people pay attention to the psychological description, stressed that mining figure in the subconscious mind, good at writing full, the changes in the strong sense of the main characters. Again, "coach Lin Feng Snow Mountain Temple" in the figure is only through dialogue and action leads to contradictions and conflicts, but Anna Karenina Wogui before a series of conflicts only with his description of the psychological will be able to express their clear; for poetry in Lin In the performance of her literary talent, and Paul with his inner monologue of the ideal; Zhang Zhong-Yong has only the character, but Jane Eyre's character is the brave, strong, warm, kind-hearted, and so many of the character and rubbing and Cheng's. In short, people in the area described in the West has its own unique features. 2, China compared with Western fiction novel plot twists and turns more and more complete story. Plot twists and turns, the story is complete fiction China's unique traditional arts. The Wei and Jin Zhi Zhi people on the novel twists and turns with vivid characteristics. Tang legend in the layout of many of the famous, magnificent anomaly, rigorous and clever, dramatic plot development. The contents of the Ming and Qing Dynasties novels scattered irregular, undulating waves, Cuoluoyouzhi, careful structure, an integral whole. "A Dream of Red Mansions", everywhere She Fu, Hui turning point, the story of Jia's best writing. Western plot in respect of the outstanding works, although there are many, but it can not be compared with the Chinese novel. 3, concise and lively Chinese language novel, rich in content and rich Western novels. Chinese folk artists absorbed the novel language, at the same time inherited the fine traditions of ancient prose, often a few words will be able to outline the incident or the people. Western novels in the author includes a broad range of knowledge, involve the community in many ways, so rich in content and rich people can gain knowledge in many areas. Engels said he was in Balzac's novel about 19th century France's domestic situation than he received any reports are more. Western novels have different characteristics, and also in the West different aesthetic concepts to a certain extent related. 4, Western novels have been the rule of the feudal culture of oppression destroyed. Chinese feudal culture makes the development of the novel is extremely difficult, Ming and Qing Dynasties more people to write stories for shame, so many great writers living, creating the conditions are not covered, many of the great works of authors who do not know. Western novels in the feudal culture makes almost the whole of the Middle Ages in the development of extremely slow, and many talented writers were forced to church services, wrote some of the religious nature of the article dry hole. Third, Western novels in the future prospects for the development of End of the Qing Dynasty, China and the West have begun to understand the other side of the system, the advantages of the novel in the West have been constantly learn from each other. Of course, due to historical reasons, the Chinese side of the draw a little more. To this day, the novelist in the West efforts are still two researchers in the novel's artistic charm, although the different languages of each other's appreciation of the arts to a certain extent, but the United States are interlinked. We have every reason to believe that in the near future, the novel art in the West will ultimately learn from each other and integrate, develop and reach new artistic heights. References: "Foreign Literature" Shanghai Translation Publishing House Zhou Xu Liang "Contemporary Literature election," Zhang Zhong, such as Beijing University Publishing House "Chinese literature history of the development of" Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House Liu Jie "Literary History of Europe" People's Literature Publishing House Yangzhou Han Wu Da-yuan Zhao Rui radish "Three high school language textbook used by the five dates of the" People's Education Press仅供参考，请自借鉴。希望对您有帮助。
吃吃吃货小两口
隐喻的中西方文化差异Abstract: Metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon but also a way of thinking, which is one of the basic methods for human survival and cognition. It is rooted in language, thought and culture. Through the analysis and comparison of the use and concept of metaphor in different countries, we find that its universality and commonality of the metaphor as a basic human cognitive activities. However, metaphor in different languages reflects a different way of thinking and behavior and different cultural patterns. Owing to the different two modes of thinking and culture, there are some differences in understanding and formation that can not be ignored. Therefore, this paper will discuss the questions : metaphor, cross-cultural differences, translation. 1. Preamble Metaphor is a common phenomenon, a large number of people use metaphor to express his feelings and ideas. British scientists rhetoric Richards (IARichards) once said, "We have day-to-day in almost every conversation in three sentences may be a metaphor." According to statistics, life around the use of 4,700,000 new metaphor, 2,140,000 stereotypes of metaphor. Research in recent years, there is a great metaphor. This article introduced in the definition of metaphor on the basis of summing up the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western metaphor, and that its culture, precisely because of the prevalence of metaphor, how to translate metaphor has become a very important issue in the latter part of the article is aimed at The translation of metaphor put forward a translation of the three strategies. This paper studies aimed at trying to comparative analysis of English and Chinese in a large number of day-to-day language of metaphor to express, find out the differences and similarities, in order to be able to accurately translate the article in good metaphor to explore a little. This article is about the metaphor from the point of view to explore the differences in the way Thinking allows us to a deeper understanding of language, culture, the relationship between thinking and can more clearly understand the different ethnic language, culture, way of thinking, and so on On the nature of translation. 2. Metaphors in Chinese and Western studies In 1980, Lakoff & Johnson (George Lakoff & Mark Johnson) made a "living metaphor" (Metaphors We Live By) of the book, a modern metaphor to open a new chapter in the school. Domestic academia on the "metaphor" This is also a review of the system, such as Lin Wu's book "Study abroad metaphor Looking at the" beam-setting "metaphor research," Li of China and India "The main subjects Metaphor" and so on. However, the Chinese metaphor for the academic study of rare. "Chinese scholars on the study of metaphor, I am afraid the real contribution should be through the metaphor of the Chinese characteristics of research and study, through the metaphor of the Chinese and other languages in the comparative study of metaphor, metaphor for the establishment of a more general theory of the strong, and even unique The basis. "Lin Wu in the book" metaphor of the basic research the status quo, and the focus of the trend "in the main text, put forward a model of cultural metaphors with the relationship:" The language of metaphor is the emergence of expression into the system, which not only reflects the psychological Structure, but also reflect the different cultural models also play a role. " metaphor in the relationship between Chinese and Western cultures relationship Correspond to (corresponding) refers to the relationship between the two languages, English and Chinese in the meaning and metaphor in the use of the same meaning in the culture and image, and so on and-one mapping. This is because the survival of mankind itself, as well as all the external conditions, including the geographical environment, climate change, and the whole of human society and cultural background are certain there is a common, which formed a common humanity of their own and the outside world on many issues. In the "angry" mood, the English are angry that physiological responses, such as: grind one's teeth. (Teeth), bare one's teeth. (Ziyaliezui) an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. (an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth), reflecting the Chinese culture on the basis of common experience. non-correspondence English-Chinese metaphor, after all, rooted in two different languages on the soil, resulting in very different cultural backgrounds, fully corresponds to the few metaphors, the vast majority do not have common cultural identity in order to form the corresponding non-(non-corresponding ) Relations. Non-relationship metaphor can be roughly divided into three categories: Vehicle counterpart, Yu Yi does not correspond to English and Chinese in some cases there is the same as a metaphor, but in their own language and culture in the meaning of the metaphor means is different, even different. Peacock in the Chinese culture is auspicious, a symbol of beauty, especially the Dai people to express jumped Pavaner desire to better their own. If the Chinese people will be likened to a peacock, it means that beautiful light. However, in English, peacock (Peacock) is a symbol of pride, often interpreted as arrogance, love to show off. For example, They were eager to take the young peacock down a peg. (They want to pressure a pressure that the arrogant young guy's momentum). counterpart Yu Yi, the vehicle does not correspond to English-Chinese two nations due to their differences, from different angles to look at things the same, it will be a different analogy. As a result both English and Chinese language there is a different vehicle, but Yu was referring to was basically the same as the meaning of the case, that is the same kind of non-correspondence. Such as: a person described as the hearts of anxious, restless, Chinese is "ants on the hot pan" and English is "a cat on the bricks". There are similar: To kick down the ladder. Guohechaiqiao. Yu Yu Yi and do not correspond to Some of the metaphors Yu-Yu has a meaning and it refers to the language and culture are closely related, in another culture often can not find corresponding Yu and Yu Yi, which resulted in a culture known as the default Phenomenon. For example: in English "my rib" I am referring to Yu's wife, it comes from the "Bible" story, that is, Adam (Adam)'s wife Eve (Eve) God is with a piece of Adam's rib made. The Chinese did not, "the Bible" cultural background, and there was no analogy with rib habit, so the formation of a corresponding gap. Similarly, "ugly duckling" (Ugly Duckling) refers to the metaphor will get ahead of Little, "early bird" refers to the diligent Yu, in the words into Chinese language, culture, as a result of the default, can not find a corresponding relationship between metaphor . Chinese and Western cultures in the common metaphor Metaphor and culture to a large extent, human beings have a common understanding, rooted in the people's own day-to-day experience. In this connection, often between different ethnic groups are the same. Both English and Chinese language in a lot of abstract thinking that the metaphorical expression is the same. For example: the human child in the period to form a position on the concept of input in that direction in the form of many of them easily understood, including the position expressed by metaphor, which has become a fixed pattern of thinking. For example: The term direction (up, down) to describe people's social status, physical, emotional, and other abstract concepts to the case when the good is up; Sad is down. We Chinese are also not difficult to find a similar sentence: "Gas Prices "," enhance the social status "and" vision "and" depressed. " Since the objective laws of nature with the relative unity of different cultures to understand the nature of the course is similar to the cognitive experience. in the metaphor of the difference between Chinese and Western cultures As the English-Chinese geographical and cultural differences, living in two different cultures in practice there are a lot of differences, and different life experiences and let people understand the objective world, a different language carries different nationalities Cultural characteristics and cultural information. Understanding of metaphor is not out of socio-cultural backgrounds. For example, social and cultural impact of the color words is deep-rooted, some color words in different cultures in an entirely different meaning, has a distinctive feature of our national culture. Such as: English, said in green "inexperienced" and "shallow knowledge", such as: "a green hand", "I was very green when I started working there." The Chinese like to express the meaning of the word is "yellow" Such as: "Huangmaoyatou" and "flower girl". Cultural background knowledge is the metaphor to create a rich source of thinking, as the Eastern and Western cultures are different, metaphors in English and Chinese applications there are also significant differences. The metaphor of the cross-cultural differences between Chinese and Western influence Language is a cultural change in the development of the complex, subject to political, economic, historical, environmental and other factors. Chinese and Western styles are different, but in many ways to infiltrate interaction and integration, language differences and cultural metaphor for the inevitable impact is complex and diverse. metaphorical expression of cultural conflict Different nationalities in the world to observe a different perspective and ideas, different cultures there are a lot of conflict or inconsistency metaphor. If the animal metaphors, in English Long (dragon) is a kind of evil, will belch out smoke monster. "Bible", the dragon is the devil, is a symbol of evil and terror, there is a terrible vicious meaning. The Chinese dragon is in power, the auspicious symbol of Chinese traditional culture, the Chinese have "Wangzichenglong", "descendants of the Dragon." The same analogy in different cultures, different meaning, of two cultures "Dragon" to give a different connotation. differences in living conditions caused by differences in metaphor In English is a lot of metaphor and marine-related, such as: all at sea (at a loss what to do); drink like a fish (drinking cow); fish in the air (Shuizhonglaoyue); give up the ship (give up). In Chinese, there are a lot of the horse or cattle pose a metaphor, such as: "a willing ox" (a willing horse) Gan means to serve the community; "old ox" (a working horse) refers to the hard work; "bragging "(Talk horse), and so on. This is due to different geographical location and natural environment caused by different cultural metaphor. Britain is an island, ultimately, dependent on the sea, and China is a large agricultural country, farming culture deeply feudal society. different religious and cultural differences arising from the metaphor Religious culture of human culture is an important part of it by referring to the nation's religious beliefs, such as the formation of the sense of culture, "the Bible" in the story, with its language and meaning has become a feature of daily life in the West in terms of . For example, power of the keys (the keys to the kingdom of heaven; the rights of the Pope), in the right church, but in the wrong pew (in general is right, but not the details), and so on. Chinese culture and Buddhism, Taoism and more affected by the impact of Confucianism, the Chinese, there are a lot of related argot. "Jiehuaxianfo"; "临时抱佛脚"; "做一天和尚撞一天钟" and so on. It is due to the diversity of culture, resulting in the differences between English and Chinese metaphor. This difference to the cross-cultural communication has brought the impact. As a foreign language students, do not understand the difference between metaphor and language will make mistakes, sometimes mistakenly made good as pleasant, caused by either one or both of the conversation unpleasant; also sometimes mocked as a praise. When a native language other operators do not understand the language contained in the cultural differences, it is often difficult for such language to accurately convey the meaning of the understanding, difficulty to the cross-cultural exchange. 3. Metaphor of the three methods of translation The translation of metaphor not only accurately and effectively convey the original language, but also loyal, accessible, complete reproduction of the original language and cultural connotation and significance. But in the West because of cultural differences and different, so the translation of metaphor in English on the need to consider not only its literal sense, and so on, but also in the West should pay attention to their cultural differences. American Eugene Nida said: "Translation is the exchange between the two cultures. The real success of the translation, even more familiar with the two cultures is more important to master two languages. Because only in terms of its role in the culture In the background will only be meaningful. "Therefore, the translation of metaphor to combining Chinese and Western cultures, and cultural backgrounds to leave the translation, can not be achieved between the two languages of the real exchange. Literal Translation The so-called "literal" is asked in the language when conditions permit, in the translation to maintain the original content, but also to maintain the original form, in particular, to maintain the original metaphor, the image of the nation, and other local color. In the literal translation method to maintain the original expression of the culture and at the same time, target enriched the vocabulary and expression, such as: "a Pandora's box" (Pandora's Box); "chain reaction" (chain reaction). In the original text and asked the information contained in the same culture, we should adopt the literal translation method. (1) You are my sunshine, my only sunshine. : You are my sun, my only sunshine. In Chinese and English, the sun is warm, beautiful, in both languages, they disseminate information on culture are the same. As a rule, and asked in the original text in the form of grammatical structure, similar to the style or color on basically the same, the law should adopt the literal translation. (1) He is another Shylock. : He is also a Shylock. (Note: Shakespeare's Shylock is "The Merchant of Venice" in a very harsh mean business People. ) (2) To carry coals to Newcastle. : Coal to Newcastle. (Note: "Newcastle" is a British coal, coal is superfluous here.) 4. Conclusion Metaphor as a way to figures of speech or skills, a unique feature of grammar, which features make the sentence more flexible and constructive, but the United States. Is a metaphor to express more complex ideas and things, a powerful tool. Wherever and whenever people in their daily lives are often used metaphor. As Mr. Lin Zhuang said: "The metaphor is no longer expanding his knowledge and understanding of a passive process. To help us in the form of new knowledge, the metaphor has played an active role so that we can better a better understanding of the objective world." In English and Chinese Metaphorical significance of the difference is due to cultural differences between East and West, that mode of thinking, moral values and sense of difference. However, different cultural impact of what is the concept of metaphor, it is still a need to examine and address the problem. At the same time, in the metaphor of the process of translation must pay special attention to cultural differences. The best translation is to be able to accurately reflect the true meaning of the author, as well as its cultural and stylistic characteristics of the translation, that is, the translation of metaphor to make as much as possible the original language and to achieve the target language culture, and so on.
韩建忠001
Chinese and Western cultural differences in the performance of every aspect of daily life from the greeting 、 term diet and cultural differences in the way of thinking in the abstract, such as differences everywhere, from the West focus on the following colors to express the difference between Chinese and Western cultural differences in areas such as a wedding set. First, in the West to express the color difference Different colors in different languages is not expressed in the same way. The representative of China in a sense, the West has a meaning that even the "color" to understand the meaning of the contrary. (A) red (red) Whether in China or in the English-speaking countries, often in red and festive celebrations or day-related. Calendar, red font used these days, therefore, red letter day: refers to the "Day" or "happy occasion." It also refers to the red "liabilities" or "loss" because people are always negative in red to register. So there are these phrases: red figure deficit in the red loss In common with the Chinese "red" words, translated into English, may not necessarily use the "red" for example: brown sugar brown sugar red wine red wine (B) yellow Yellow in English and Chinese in the extended meaning of the differences are considerable. In English, yellow can be said that the "timid, cowardly, despicable," meaning, for example: a yellow dog despicable, cowardly people a yellow livered coward Chinese yellow symbol of the term is sometimes vulgar, vulgar and obscene, indecent indecency means, such as yellow film, erotica, yellow CD, and so on. These in the name of "yellow" in English and "yellow" has nothing to do. However, in another English word blue is the color used to indicate the kind of meaning in Chinese, such as the blue jokes (dirty joke), blue films (yellow film). Second, the cultural differences in Western wedding First of all, in Western wedding culture and the first in the West in thinking about the differences: the Chinese people more conservative, like excitement, more old-fashioned thinking, so in the history of China for thousands of years the entire wedding customs did not change much. The thinking in the West is more open to the requirements of the wedding will be lower, they will be the climax of the wedding in the church: the sacred as the "wedding march" into the red carpet, Jiao Mei's father, the bride linked hands Rose walked slowly to the groom, the bride's father, daughter to the groom's hand on hand, her daughter's life will be entrusted to the groom, all eyes followed the couple, filled with well-being in their face. Second, the result of cultural differences wedding in the West because the West in a different religion. China is mainly Buddhist, but the West is mainly Christian. Therefore, the Western wedding is to be held in the church and the priest is Zhuhun Ren. China's traditional customs of the most important part of the Bai Tiandi is, the worship heaven and earth even after the ceremony has become.中西方文化差异表现在方方面面，从日常生活的打招呼用语、饮食文化等差异到思维方式等抽象方面的差异无所不在，下面着重从中西方颜色表达的差异，中西方婚礼文化差异等方面阐述。 一、中西方颜色表达的差异 不同颜色在不同语言中表达的方式并不一样。在中国代表一种意义，在西方又表示一种涵义，甚至对“颜色”的涵义理解恰恰相反。（一）red（红色）无论是在英语国家还是在中国，红色往往与庆祝活动或喜庆日子有关。日历中，这些日子常用红色字体，因此，red letter day：指的是“纪念日”或“喜庆的日子”。红色还指“负债”或“亏损”，因为人们总是用红笔登记负数。于是就有了这些词组：red figure赤字 in the red亏损汉语中常用的带“红”字的词语，翻译成英语，可不一定用“red”例如：红糖brown sugar 红酒red wine （二） yellow黄色在英语和汉语中的引申含义差别比较大。英语中，yellow可以表示“胆小、卑怯、卑鄙”的意思，例如：a yellow dog 可鄙的人，卑鄙的人a yellow livered 胆小鬼汉语中黄色一词有时象征低级趣味、色情庸俗、下流猥亵的意思，如黄色电影、黄色书刊、黄色光碟等等。这些名称中的“黄”与英语中的“yellow”无关。然而，英语中另一个颜色词blue却常用来表示汉语中这类意思，如blue jokes（下流的玩笑）， blue films（黄色电影）等。 二、中西方婚礼文化差异 首先，中西方婚礼文化差异首先和中西方人在思维方面的差异有关：中国人比较保守，喜欢热闹，思维较古板，所以在中国历史几千年的时间里整个婚礼的习俗并没有多大的变化。而西方人的思想则比较开放，对于婚礼的要求也比较低，他们婚礼的高潮则是在教堂中：随着神圣的《婚礼进行曲》步入鲜红的地毯，娇美的新娘挽着父亲手捧玫瑰慢慢向新郎走去，新娘的父亲将女儿的手放在新郎的手上，将女儿的一生托付给新郎，所有人的目光注视着这对新人，幸福洋溢在他们的脸上。其次，造成中西方婚礼文化差异的原因是中西方不同的宗教。中国是以佛教为主，而西方则是基督教为主的。所以西方的婚礼是在教堂中举行而主婚人则是神甫。中方的传统婚俗中的最重要环节就是拜天地，拜了天地以后就算是礼成了。
liyingyong
（二）学生准备： 1、文书材料方面：查阅课本、查阅图书资料、《健康报》等报刊杂志。 2、电子材料方面：查询电子读物（视听软件）、电视健康频道、社会频道、互联网的相关网页。 3、调查材料方面：走访老师和专家、社会实践和社会调查等。 4、实验材料方面：利用可搜集的材料设计实验并动手实验、撰写实验报告等。 5、自己制作的各种材料表格，包括活动的程序、安全与组织纪律等制度的确定。 6、制作自制水果的材料和榨汁机。四、活动安排 活动一：对全校学生进行调查采访活动二：对于饮料的市场调查活动活动三：问题的提出 活动四：问题的初步探究活动五：研究成果展示交流活动六：自己制作饮料活动七：评价与反思 五、活动总结 洪江区幸福路小学 红领巾“绿色饮食”监测站 2006年11月饮料与儿童健康科技实践主题探究活动实施阶段活动记录一：对全校学生进行调查采访 一、对校园内一部分人关于“最常喝的饮料；饮料的种类；饮料的来源”等方面进行调查采访。每小组内将调查的结果进行统计、汇总、分析，并用柱形图表示出人们最爱喝的饮料是什么。采访后根据自己的感受经历写成日记，并进行小组内交流或在校园网上交流。 二、让学生对调查采访结果进行全班汇总统计画成柱形图，画在大卡纸上，（人们爱喝饮料的种类、人数、饮料的来源） 活动记录二：对于饮料的市场调查 调查人们最爱、常喝的饮料的营养成分及对人体的影响。途径有三： 1．组织学生在附近超市或小店进行采访；教师的帮助是帮助制定表格，帮助小组内确定调查的具体内容和记录方法。 2．利用电脑网络进行查找。图书馆查找资料，并组织学生将调查的结果进行整理；并写出自己的发现或体会。 3．整理汇总小组内的调查资料，并写出自己的研究成果。以一定的方式呈现。 活动三：问题的提出 （一）提出问题、引发学生思考 1、教师：通过以上的调查，可见饮料是我们生活中不可缺少的东西，它们安全与否、营养有无，家长、学校里不让我们多喝饮料到底是为了什么呢？……不如这样吧，关于饮料我们就来一次深入的调查研究好吗？看看饮料对我们生活、健康有什么影响。 2、首先提供一条信息：“如果把人脱落的牙齿浸泡在可乐中，过一段时间牙齿会变软。你相信吗？” 2、学生自由发言，发表自己的见解。 （二）确立研究方法 1、教师引导：你能用什么方法进行验证这条信息？ 2、学生自由发言，预想自己的研究方法。 3、教师引导：你会运用哪些用具做实验呢？ 提示1：如果没有牙齿，可以用什么实验材料代替呢？ 提示2：牙齿变软，说明牙齿中什么物质被破坏？ 4、学生分组讨论，由此开展研究，确定实验方案。 5、小组汇报实验方案，各组针对其实施的有效性与科学性互相评价，教师点评。 6、教师提示：做实验的时候应该注意什么？ （可乐瓶子的盖注意拧紧，在实验过程中不要打开） （三）课后延伸 在课下与伙伴完成实验，并对实验现象进行认真记录，并对实验结果进行分析。 活动建议： 教师在引发学生思考的同时，要注重启发学生用科学的方法去解决问题，使学生了解实验的方法，并学会填写实验报告表格。学生在课下做实验的过程中，教师给予必要的关注，如果学生遇到问题，要及时引导其自行解决。 活动四：问题的初步探究 活动设计： （一）各组实验成果汇报 实验1： （1）具体做法：将鸡骨浸泡在可乐中。 （2）实验现象：经过一星期后，鸡骨完全变黑，并明显变软。 （3）实验结论：可乐中含有大量色素，可乐会破坏骨头中的钙。 实验2： （1）具体做法：将鱼骨浸泡在可乐中。 （2）实验现象：经过一星期后，整条鱼骨两边的小刺已经看不到了，中间的粗大部分完全变黑，并明显变软。 （3）实验结论：可乐中含有大量色素，可乐会严重破坏骨头中的钙。 （二）确立进一步探究问题 1、教师提问：看到这么触目惊心的情景，你有什么感受呢？ 2、学生自由发言，畅谈体会。 3、教师引导：在经过了这次实验之后，你有什么问题想要更进一步的去了解呢？ 4、小组讨论，对提出的问题进行整理和归纳，选择组员们感兴趣的同时适合开展研究的主题。 （学生主题：可口可乐对人体的危害、饮料的种类与营养、身边的伙伴喜欢喝什么饮料、最适合人体健康的饮料等） （三）制订活动计划 1、分组确定研究计划。确定研究分工和完成研究任务的有效途径与方法，明确小组内部成员的分工。 2、组间交流各自研究计划，师生共同探讨修订。 活动建议： 让学生通过亲手实验、亲眼目睹的实验现象而产生的新的思考与新的疑问是本次活动的关键，教师要注重引导学生对实验结果产生新的生成性问题。 活动五：研究成果展示交流 活动地点：教室学生活动准备：展示使用的相应工具与道具一、创设情境、激情引入 教师创设一个综艺活动“研究总动员”的情境，引领学生进入本次“饮料与儿童健康”主题研究成果展示会。 二、交流成果、共享互研 1、探讨交流：碳酸饮料的危害 （1）各组同学自由展示与交流自己的实践成果 （2）学生自由交流：实践中的感受与观看展示后的感受 2、调查分析：身边的小伙伴究竟有多少还在喝碳酸类饮料呢？ （1）教师语言引导：碳酸饮料对人体的危害真是太大了，我们身边还有人在喝 可口可乐这种碳酸饮料，究竟还有多少人在喝这种饮料呢？ （2）学生展示研究成果（相关的调查分析） （3）自由交流：看了调查结果之后，你有什么感受？ 3、展示交流：除了碳酸饮料，我们还有其它的选择吗？ （1）教师语言引导：以前我们天天喝可口可乐，这一下子不让我们喝可口可乐了，那我们喝什么呢？ （2）通过趣意盎然的形式介绍不同种类的饮料 （3）畅谈感受：欣赏了各组嘉宾异彩纷呈的饮料介绍，了解了各类饮料丰富的知识，你有怎样的感受呢？ （4）问题延伸：为了我们的健康，我们的最佳选择是什么呢？ （5）学生展示研究成果 【学生研究成果】 （一）碳酸饮料的危害 1、资料补充：色素的危害 2、资料：可乐中阿巴斯田的危害 3、实验：将鸡骨浸泡在可乐中，经过15天，鸡骨明显变软。 4、资料：咖啡因影响对钙的吸收 5、资料补充：咖啡因对人体的其他影响 6、意外发现：碳酸饮料的概念 7、资料补充：碳酸饮料的危害 8、意外发现：百事可乐和可口可乐中含有浓度足以危害人们杀虫剂残余物。 9、实验：将两只蟑螂分别放入果汁与可乐中，经过一段时间，可乐中的蟑螂先死亡，而果中的蟑螂依然活着。（可乐中含有过量杀虫剂残余物） （二）你喜欢喝什么饮料？ 1、介绍调查问卷 2、进行问卷分析（统计图） （三）除了碳酸饮料，我们还有其他的选择吗？ 1、果汁饮料 2、茶饮料 3、豆乳饮料 4、矿泉水 5、 纯净水 （四）要可口更要健康，我们明智的选择是什么？ 健康新闻：介绍白开水是儿童的最佳饮料 （五）教师总结升华：喝任何东西都要适量，做任何事都要适可而止 三、思维拓展、课题延伸 1教师引发思考：即使我们在偶尔喝喝的饮料的时候，也有一些需要注意的问题呢，你觉得我们在喝饮料的时候应该注意些什么？ 2小组讨论，将自己的倡议写在纸条上后贴在黑板前大幅的“健康倡议书”上。 3小组代表介绍自己小组的建议。 4教师小结并引发新思考：看来喝饮料也是一门学问呢！在我们的生活中，留心处处皆学问，即使是我们习以为常的喝喝饮料，经过我们的研究竟也存在着这种种不健康因素，大家想一想，在我们的生活中还有哪些人们习以为常实际上却是不健康的习惯，让我们共同完成一份健康倡议书。 5、自由畅谈：通过哪种方式将自己的倡议告诉给身边的人？ 6、教师小结：让我们现在就开始行动吧！让我们把健康带给我们身边的每一个人，让我们带上我们的倡议，向着健康的方向，出发！ 活动建议： 教师可以根据学生的汇报内容灵活安排课时，为学生提供充分的展示空间。对于表现优秀的小组可以在校内进行汇报展示，作为对学生开展活动的肯定与鼓励，激发学生参与活动的热情与愿望。 活动六：自己制作饮料 1、学生亲自制作饮料 在制作饮料时，所有同学都在为自已的饮料的“营养”花费了一翻心思，制成各种各样的特色饮料，这促使孩子们对所有的水果和蔬菜的营养成分进行仔细的研究。 2、写出自己的配制的结果 3
认知语言学对英汉时间的隐喻及其文化的理解 论文摘 要 :作为抽象的时间,认知学和学家们研究表明隐喻是人们对抽象概念认识和表达的最有效手法。隐喻的使用说明了其在人
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