用英语介绍伤寒杂病论文

今天，当人类豪迈地飞往宇宙空间，当机器人问世，当高清晰度数字化彩电进入日常家 庭生活，当克隆羊多利诞生惊动整个世界，当人们在为现代科学技术的神奇功能而叹为观止 的时候，你是否了解化学工程的一个分支学科——分离科学——的优异功效在现代科学技术 发展中的贡献与地位呢？ 信息科学、材料科学和生物工程被誉为当今三大前沿科学，新材料还被誉为现代文明的支柱 之一。这是因为没有花样繁多、品种齐全、功能奇特、高纯度的新材料，所有的高新技术只 能是空中楼阁，电脑、机器人、宇宙飞船等都只能是天方夜谭，所以不管怎么样的高新技术 ，都是要以开发和利用自然资源，进而分离或合成出高纯的材料为基础的。化工分离纯化技 术作为科学技术的一个组成部分，为人类的各种需求变成现实提供了可靠的保证。现代分离 技术已经可以使产品的杂质含量低于十亿分之一，被誉为现代分离能手的溶剂萃取（液液 萃取）就是现代分离技术中的一种。例如在核燃料的后处理中，用萃取分离技术对被辐照过 的核燃料进行处理，提取人工核素钅不239，其中铀和钚的收 率均可以达到999%。去除强放射性物质的效果（去污系数）可以达到106~108。 “溶剂萃取”作为一个名词，也许很多人不太熟悉，但作为一种实用的分离方法，却早已被 人们应用于实践中。溶剂萃取用于无机化合物分离的历史是有案可查的。1842年皮尔哥德(P eligot)首 先发现用二乙醚可以从硝酸溶液中萃取硝酸铀酰。随后人们又在实践中发现了其他一些无机 物也能被某些有机物所萃取，并据此初步建立了半经验的液液平衡的定量关系。到19世纪 末，能斯特(Nernst)利用热力学基本原理对液液平衡关系进行了进一步阐述，提出了著名的能斯特分配定律，该定律为萃取化学和化工的发展奠定了早期的理论基础。19世纪末到20世纪初， 人们开始将萃取分离技术应用于有机化工和石油化工领域中，如用酯类萃取剂萃取醋酸，用 液态二氧化硫作为萃取剂从煤油中去除芳烃。20世纪30年代，人们试图将萃取分离技术应用 于稀土元素的分离，但由于当时条件的限制，没有取得实质性的进展。40年代，原子能工业 在战火中诞生，基于生产核燃料的需要，萃取分离技术无论在理论上还是在实际应用中均得 到了迅速的发展，特别是磷酸三丁酯作为核燃料的萃取剂得到应用后，萃取分离技术进入了 一个崭新的阶段。随后，萃取分离技术在稀土的分离、湿法冶金、无机化工、有机化工、医 药、食品、环境等领域不断得到应用，并取得了很好的效果。到现在，萃取分离技术几乎可以涉及元素周期表中的所有元素，已成为分离技术中的主要成员之一。因此，只要你认真了 解一下萃取分离技术的辉煌历史，就会被其优异的功能所吸引。 我们现在正处于一个由工业化社会向信息化社会转变的历史时期，在这样一个大背景下，现代科学技术也在从大科学技术时代向超大科学技术时代转变。这个时代的科技发展既有别于个人主导下的小科技时代，也有别于政府主导下的大科技时代，而是一个以企业科技创新为主体的多元化的科技发展时代，超常规科学技术的发展将逐步取代常规科学技术成为未来科学技术发展的主流。 在这样一个历史转型时期，我国科学技术事业的发展正面临着一次严峻的挑战和一个非常良好的发展机遇。科技发展的超大科技时代必然引起各国科技发展战略和政策的调整。作为一个关注我国科技事业发展的研究人员，本人愿在此与广大网友就“超大科技”问题及中国特色的自主创新之路建设问题与网友进行互动与探讨，以期为国家发展献计献策。 中国现代科学史研究亟待开展 “人创造历史，却对自己正在创造的历史茫然无知。”西方哲人的这句名言陈述的好像正是我们面对的现实。100多年来，我们这个具有悠久史学传统的文明古国，在近代化的大潮中颠簸沉浮，进退失据，至今仍然处于追赶先进的路途上。因此，对于自己的近代史，往往觉得乏善可陈，不堪回首，或不屑一顾，或无暇顾及，或有意回避，甚至刻意编造。近代与古代的强烈对比，尤以科学技术史为特出，加之一段时期极左思潮的泛滥使人们讳言近现代史，所以在相当长的一段时期，古代科学技术史是中国科学技术史研究的主流，近现代科技史则少人问津，在相当程度上仍隐身于历史的重重迷雾之中。 近代科学技术自19世纪传入中国以来，经历了一段非同寻常的曲折过程。从19世纪中叶自强运动中开始的“师夷之长技”和“求强求富”，到20世纪初年的“科学救国”、“实业救国”思潮，从50年代的“向科学进军”，到20世纪末叶的“科教兴国”战略，中国人对科学技术给予了多少希望、梦想和憧憬！ 150年来，中国科学技术的进步是显著的，但在全人类共同创建的现代科学技术大厦中，中国人的贡献还相当有限，中国科学技术的现代化还没有完成。站在新世纪的门槛上，中国应该如何发展科学技术，追赶国际先进水平，实现“科教兴国”的历史重任？面对这样重大的问题，我们不仅要深入了解和借鉴科学技术发达国家的经验，还必须深入研究中国近现代科学技术发展的历程及其与社会文化的关系，力求准确地把握科学技术的特性及其发展机制，总结中国近现代科学技术发展的历史经验和教训。令人遗憾的是，我们在致力于解决眼前的科学和技术问题，追赶国际先进水平的时候，却很少系统地探讨和总结我们一二百年来科技发展的经验和教训。长期以来，我们对如何推进中国科学技术的进步、创造有利于科学技术发展的社会条件和文化氛围缺乏应有的认识。结果，我们不仅不易充分汲取历史的经验教训，反而可能重复旧的失当的政策和举措。因此，在面临重任和挑战的今天，系统的研究中国近现代科学技术发展史不但是学术研究的一项紧迫任务，也是现实赋予我们的重大课题。 研究中国近现代科技史必须吸收国际研究近现代科技史的丰富成果，需要具有宽阔的学术视野、深沉的人文关怀和高度的历史责任感。当代的科学技术史已不再局限于描述科学知识的发展和演变（如各种各样的学科史）以及为伟大的科学家和工程师树碑立传这样一些传统的历史体裁，而是致力于探索科学技术的发展与社会、政治、经济和文化的复杂关系，研究科学与技术特性，从而促进科学技术与社会的协调发展，增进人类文化的进步。尤其是现代科学技术史研究，往往与国家的政治、经济和科技政策等密切相关，因而越来越受到许多国家的科学技术史学者的重视。对于前苏联等社会主义体制下的科技发展史的研究探讨，受到了国际科学技术世界的重视，出现了许多重视成果。相比之下，我们的中国近现代科技史研究还很封闭，亟待吸取相关研究的经验。 近三十多年来，科学技术史领域内借鉴哲学、人类学、伦理学等人文社会科学的方法和理论，科技史与其他学科的结合和交叉，形成了科学技术史领域内的多种研究取向和路径，极大地拓展了科学技术史的研究范围和视野。科学技术史领域的这种变化，既有其学科发展的内在理路，更是当代科学技术发展所产生的一系列社会和文化问题在科技史领域的反映。在科学技术主导的当今时代，科学技术与国家的利益和社会生活的关系日趋密切，但是科技发展所引起的诸如生态环境问题和伦理困境等也逐渐为人们所认识。这促使人们进一步探索科学技术的特性和本质以及科技活动的特点和规律。与此同时，科学技术史也是其相关学科如科学技术哲学、科学技术社会学、科技政策研究的基础。因此，科学技术史，特别是现代科学技术史的研究工作，不仅仅是当代科学发展的内部需要，也是以科学技术史为中心的相关学科的基础性工作。 中国古代科学技术在世界科技发展史上有其重要历史地位。它的发展从远古时代原始积累，春秋战国奠定基础，两汉、宋元两次高潮，中经魏晋南北朝的充实提高和随唐五代的持续发展，至明万历以后虽比诸同时期的西方已经大为落后，但仍有缓慢进展，也出现了一系列集大成的著作，传统科学思想从高峰走向总结。综观整个发展历程，16世纪以前的中国科学技术一直处于世界领先地位。传统科学思想和科学技术的突出成就正是我国古代的科技先驱辛勤耕耘、善于观察、长于思索、勇于探究，注重整合、联系实际的产物，闪耀着我们中华民族智慧的光辉，对世界文明作出了巨大的贡献。马克思就曾经指出：“火药、指南针、印刷术这是预告资产阶级社会到来的三大发明。……总的说来变成科学复兴的手段，变成对精神发展创造必要前提的杠杆。”（注：《马克思恩格斯全集》第47页第 427页。）而今天众多著名科学家对中国传统科学思想珍贵价值的重新肯定，必将使之在21世纪科学技术发展中显示出东方智慧的新的转移与新的实现，这种情况在一些学科已初见端倪。深信我们伟大的中华民族必将在新世纪里对人类文明再次作出自己的应有贡献。 从漫长历史长河中吸取经验教训，以服务于今天的现实需要，总是值得人们去探究的事情。本文下面将以史实为依据对中国古代科学技术发展历史的特征，作些探讨与论述。 （一）我国古代科学技术的发展，特别是科学思想的发展，既有连续性，又显示出阶段性高潮的特点 我国古代社会从五帝、夏、商、周、春秋战国直至清末，凡4000年，一直绵延不断，既不曾发生过像罗马帝国那样中断无继的历史悲剧，也不曾经历西欧中世纪的黑暗时代。这就使我国古代科学技术的发展得以世代相传、连续积累，并在这个基础上走向自己的巅峰。世界著名科学史家李约瑟曾把中国古代各个时期的重要科技成就作为纵线，世纪年代作为横线，制作了一幅科技发展的示意图，它清楚地表明：无论是以前4000年，还是近500年来，中国科学技术“事实上一点没有退步”；而是“一直在稳缓地前进”。他在《中国与西方的科学与社会》一文中还指出：“我常喜欢用一种相对来说缓缓上升的曲线来说明中国的演变，显然这曲线比欧洲同一时期，譬如说公元二世纪至十五世纪的演变过程的曲线上升得高，有时高得多。”（注：《中国与西方的科学与社会》第65-85页，上海科技出版社1956年版。）我国四川大学周仲壁与四川科学技术出版社的周孟璞两位先生在《中国近代科技落后原因初探》（注：《自然杂志》13卷11期第333页。）一文中也以中国的自然科学大事、西欧的自然科学大事和著名科学家的人数作为纵坐标，世纪年代为横坐标，制作了三条增长曲线，从中国的那条曲线看，同样显示出我国古代科学技术的增长是缓慢而连续的。然而，在4000年漫长的历史长河中，春秋战国、两汉（尤其是东汉）与宋元（尤其是北宋）时期，中国古代科学技术的发展基于政治、经济、文化、社会等方面的内外因素又都显示出阶段性的高潮。春秋战国时期可以说是我国古代科学技术的全面奠基时期，也是第一次大发展时代，由于新兴封建制度优胜于奴隶制度，其成就不仅赶上而且超过了早期科学技术最发达的古希腊。 春秋末期出现了块炼铁渗碳钢，战国时期又出现了白口铁处理技术，这些冶铁技术的发明，是一个突出的标志，正是它大大促进了农业和手工业的发展。在农业方面形成了以精耕细作为主要内容的中国传统农业，战国末年写成的《吕氏春秋》，其中的《上农》、《任地》、《辩土》、《审时》等篇称得上是这种农业科技的论文开端。以都江堰、郑国渠两个大型灌溉工程的兴建为标志，展现出为农服务水利工程设施的空前发展。《考工记》中生产工具、乐器、建筑、交通运输、皮革制造、染色、乐器、玉器等36项专门实用工艺技术的记述，显示了这一时期手工业内部的细密化及其技术的规范化与科学化程度已达到相当高的水平。它记载了大量实用力学知识，是我国古代第一部工程技术知识的总汇。《墨经》中包含有关于力学、光学、声学、几何学、逻辑学以及对物质结构的猜测等科学成就，它不仅是我国第一部几何光学著作，而且在世界上也是领先的，比欧几里德几何光学要早百余年。同时，它也是古代力学与光学论说的代表作，“力”概念的提出，光直线传播思想的揭示，使这部著作更增添了亮丽的光彩。可以这样说，《考工记》与《墨经》一起作为我国古代经验科学出现的标志，是春秋战国时期人们将生产、生活实践中取得的丰富经验进行抽象概括的成果。 在数学、天文学与历法方面都有了广泛的发展与进步。十进位值制和筹算制度不断得到完善，为后世具有中国特色的计算数学体系的形成确定了基础。有关天象观测的记载详尽准确，即使在今天仍不失为天文研究的宝贵历史资料。在地学方面，《山海经》、《禹贡》、《管子、地员》等著作的出现，标志着人们的地理知识已从地理资料的积累，上升到进行某种形式的综合论述与区域对比，以服务于当时的政治、经济需要。医学方面，以《黄帝内经》等著作为代表，以人体器官整体观、阴阳五行论与脏腑经络学说为理论基础，以人体解剖、生理、病理、病因诊断等的研究与实践为重点，兼及针灸、经络、卫生保健等诸多方面，构成了我国特有的医学体系的最初基础，并在临床上显示出杰出的贡献。 我国人民寻求对自然界物质本源的认识，继五行、阴阳说之后，元气说与原子论是两大发展线索，它们的确立都分别肇始于这个时代的荀况与墨翟。 两汉时期是我国古代科学技术发展的又一高峰期，一方面，由于科技本身经过了春秋战国的长期酝酿、积累和实践，到这时达到了量变足以引起质变的地步；另一方面，则是社会政治上的统一与安定，经济的恢复与持续发展，为科技活动和科技新高潮的到来创造了良好的外部条件。它呈现出科技人才辈出，科技著作大批问世，科技成果辉煌，科技对生产的渗透与协调日益显著等诸多特点。 《九章算术》以及《周髀算经》的成书显示出以算盘为计算工具的独特数学体系的形成，形数结合，数学算术化是其特征。今天，由于计算机的出现，算术化倾向于现代数学中的作用已日渐显著，中国古代算术的思想与方法和现代计算机科学与技术正相融合，为此它将重新焕发青春，以崭新的面貌重现，在数学发展中扮演重要角色是可以预期的。 历法已确立了我国后代历法体系、规范和基本内容的原始框架，而以张衡为代表对天文仪器的研制和对天象的观察与记录以及论天三家为代表的宇宙论则形成了中国古代天文的固有传统。《汉书、地理志》的出现，开拓了沿革地理研究的新领域。《神农本草经》是我国秦汉以来药物知识的总结，它为后世本草学奠定了基础；《伤寒杂病论》不仅确立了辩证论治的医疗原则，而且大为充实了中医药体系的内容，更加切合医疗的实际应用。《汜胜之书》可以说是对农业知识的总结。《论衡》、《淮南子》、《淮南万华术》、《周易参同契》、《尔雅》等书中也包含了丰富的物理、化学或生物学在生产技术方面，成为我国古代传统特色的主要技术，像冶铁、纺织机械、农具制造、造纸工艺、漆器工艺、船舶制造等都已出现，并达到了相当的水平。像赵过的铁脚耧车、杜诗的水排、梯级船闸设计的原理与方法、木结构建筑风格、竖炉冶炼法、实测基础上绘制的地图等等都是突出的成果。造纸术更是汉代一项最重大的发明，也是我国对世界文明的一大贡献。牛耕的推广与代田法、区田法耕作制度的创新，则在当时条件下起到解放和促进生产力发展的重要推动作用。 以王充为代表的元气论与董仲舒为代表的“天人感应”说的对立与斗争，是我国科学思想史发展的又一里程碑，即使后者从协调人与自然关系的角度考察也有其值得吸取的精华。 宋元时期是我国古代科学技术达到高度发展阶段的又一高潮时期。 我国的科学技术自两汉而后，经魏晋南北朝的充实和提高，到隋唐五代技术发展，并呈现一股继续高涨的趋势。前者对中国古代科技的贡献，可以刘徽与祖冲之的数学、裴秀与郦道元的地学、贾思勰的农学、王叔和、皇甫谧与陶宏景等的医药学、葛洪的化学等为标志；后者主要有李淳风、一行等的天文学、李淳风与王孝通的数学，孙思邈的医药学以及柳宗元、刘禹锡等人的天人论与宇宙观等。这种趋势困宋元时期经济发展、文化昌盛、理学形成、战争和其他需要而得到强化。统治阶级为满足自身、政权和社会对科学技术的多方面需要，通过完善教育体系，举行多元化考试，奖励发明创造和培养扶植科技人才等措施，助长、推动和促进了科技的发展，而安定与富裕的社会环境和发达的出版业则又提供了良好的研究条件。求索物理，格物致知，怀疑、探索、创新的学风催促知识分子中具有务实思想的人考察和研究自然事物以及如何使之有利于国计民生。国内各民族之间的文化交流与国外的文化交流，也加速着科技的发展。这一切使宋元时期成为中国古代科技发展的黄金时代，不论天文、地学、生物、数学、物理、化学均有突出成就。 作为世界古代文明标志的指南针、火药和印刷术三大发明的出现或大规模使用均始于北宋，以沈括、苏颂、郭守敬、李冶、秦九韵、杨辉、朱世杰、赵友钦、毕升、陈＠①、王祯、李杲、李诫、曾公亮等为代表的科技名家辈出，硕果累累，以《梦溪笔谈》、《营造法式》、《四元玉鉴》、《武经总要》、《王祯农书》、陈＠①农书》、《革象新书》等为代表的科技著作纷纷面世，正是诸多尊敬的科技前辈先后在各方面的努力，不断将宋元时期的科学技术推进到一个新的高度。 以宋元秦九韶、李冶、杨辉、朱世杰数学四大家为代表，使宋元数学在中国古代以筹算为主要计算工具的传统数学的发展达到登峰造极的阶段。大规模的恒星观测，各种天文观测仪器的研制成功把我国古代天文学推向它的发展高峰。沈括在磁学方面的成就在当时是处于世界领先水平的。金元时期的四大医学学派和相应的医学流派使中国医药学得到全面发展。以陈＠①《农书》与王祯《农书》为代表，先后总结了宋元时期的农业生产实践经验，后者所附录的“农器图谱”展示了我国古代农业生产器具方面的重要成就，成为后世记述农具图书的范本，反映了当时农学的高度发展。宋代动植物志、谱录的大量出现并形成出书高潮，和宋景《欧希范五脏图》、杨介《存真图》所显示的解剖学上的发展，应该说这时的生物学也是成就不小的。在这一时期，地学方面的成就也很突出，元代朱思本的《舆地图》不仅总结了唐宋以来的地理学成就，还根据实地调查，在制图方面取得成绩，其精确度已达至较高水平，成为明清时期我国舆图的范本。杜绾著《云林石谱》的出现，反映了矿物学在宋代已较前有了很大进展。在这些学科发展的同时，诸如水利、冶金、印刷、瓷器、机械制造、建筑、纺织、交通工具、兵器等方面也呈现出蓬勃发展的势头。 以张载为代表的唯物主义的气一元论自然观和以沈括为代表“验迹原理”和科学方法与朱熹的“格物致知”的科学方法，无疑是哲学和科学发展到北宋时所取得的重大成就之一，对宋元时期的科学技术的发展产生了重大影响。当然，朱熹的理一元论的自然观对当时科技的影响也是不可低估的。

可以写一篇 visit the science museum ,介绍里面的比如robot,

Traditional Chinese medicineFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality improve this article if you can. (November 2008) This article or section needs copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone or can assist by editing it now. A how-to guide is available. (November 2008) This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters. Alternative medical systems Acupuncture • Anthroposophic medicine • Ayurveda • Chiropractic • Herbalism • Homeopathy • Naturopathy • Neural therapy • Osteopathy • Traditional medicine (Chinese • Tibetan) NCCAM classifications Whole medical systems • Mind-body interventions • Biologically based therapies • Manipulative therapy • Energy therapies See also Alternative medicine • Glossary of alternative medicine • List of people in alternative medicine This box: view • talk • edit Traditional Chinese medicine/dried goods shop in Tsim Sha Tsui, Hong KongTraditional Chinese medicine (also known as TCM, simplified Chinese: 中医; traditional Chinese: 中医; pinyin: zhōngyī) includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in China. It is considered a Complementary or Alternative Medical system in much of the western world while remaining as a form of primary care throughout most of practices include treatments such as herbal medicine, acupuncture, dietary therapy, Tui na and Shiatsu massage; often Qigong and Taiji are also strongly affiliated with theory is extremely complex and originated thousands of years ago through meticulous observation of nature, the cosmos, and the human body. Major theories include those of Yin-yang, the Five Phases, the human body Channel system, Zang Fu organ theory, six confirmations, four layers, [hide]1 History Ancient (classical) TCM history Timeline 2 Theory Basic theory and model of the body Modern TCM theory 3 Diagnostics Techniques 4 Methods of treatment 5 Branches 6 Scientific view Efficacy Safety In Practice Allergy Toxins and contaminants Lack of standardization Vague naming 7 Relationship with Western medicine 8 Animal products 9 Opposition 10 Modernization 11 See also 12 Footnotes 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links Online databases [edit] History[edit] Ancient (classical) TCM history Yin-yang symbolMuch of the philosophy of traditional Chinese medicine derived from the same philosophical bases that Taoist and Buddhist philosophies are based on, and reflects the classical Chinese belief that the life and activity of individual human beings have an intimate relationship with the environment at all scales.[1] It has also been noted that early traditional Chinese medicine stemmed from Taoist masters who had an extraordinary sense of the body and its workings through their many hours of meditation. This may be why TCM also inherited many of the principles inherent to Daoism (Taoism).During the golden age of his reign from 2698 to 2596 , as a result of a dialogue with his minister Qibo (岐伯), the Yellow Emperor is supposed by Chinese tradition to have composed his Neijing Suwen (《内经·素问》) or Inner Canon: Basic Questions, also known as the Huangdi Neijing (Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon). The book's title is often mistranslated as Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine. Modern scholarly opinion holds that the extant text of this title was compiled by an anonymous scholar no earlier than the Han dynasty just over two-thousand years the Han Dynasty (202 BC –220 AD), Zhang Zhongjing (张仲景/张仲景), the Hippocrates of China, who was mayor of Chang-sha toward the end of the 2nd century AD, wrote a Treatise on Cold Damage, which contains the earliest known reference to Neijing Suwen. Another prominent Eastern Han physician was Hua Tuo (c. 140 – c. 208 AD), who anesthetized patients during surgery with a formula of wine and powdered hemp. Hua's physical, surgical, and herbal treatments were also used to cure headaches, dizziness, internal worms, fevers, coughing, blocked throat, and even a diagnosis for one lady that she had a dead fetus within her that needed to be taken out. The Jin dynasty practitioner and advocate of acupuncture and moxibustion, Huang-fu Mi (215 - 282 AD), also quoted the Yellow Emperor in his Jia Yi Jing (甲乙经/甲乙经), ca. 265 AD. During the Tang dynasty, Wang Bing claimed to have located a copy of the originals of the Neijing Suwen, which he expanded and edited substantially. This work was revisited by an imperial commission during the 11th century were noted advances in Chinese medicine during the Middle Ages. Emperor Gaozong (r. 649–683) of the Tang Dynasty (618–907) commissioned the scholarly compilation of a materia medica in 657 that documented 833 medicinal substances taken from stones, minerals, metals, plants, herbs, animals, vegetables, fruits, and cereal crops.[2] In his Bencao Tujing ('Illustrated Pharmacopoeia'), the scholar-official Su Song (1020–1101) not only systematically categorized herbs and minerals according to their pharmaceutical uses, but he also took an interest in zoology.[3][4][5][6] For example, Su made systematic descriptions of animal species and the environmental regions they could be found, such as the freshwater crab Eriocher sinensis found in the Huai River running through Anhui, in waterways near the capital city, as well as reservoirs and marshes of Hebei.[7]Contact with Western culture and medicine has not displaced TCM. While there may be traditional factors involved in the persistent practice, two reasons are most obvious in the westward spread of TCM in recent decades. Firstly, TCM practices are believed by many to be very effective, sometimes offering palliative efficacy where the practices of Western medicine fail or unable to provide treatment, especially for routine ailments such as flu and allergies, or when Western medicine fails to relieve patients suffering from chronic ailments. TCM has been shown to be effective in the treatment of chronic, functional disorders, such as migraines and osteoarthritis, and is traditionally used for a wide range of functional disorders. Secondly, TCM provides an alternative to otherwise costly procedures whom many can not afford, or which is not covered by insurance. There are also many who turn to TCM to avoid the toxic side effects of of the last few centuries is seen by at least some sinologists as part of the evolution of a culture, from shamans blaming illnesses on evil spirits to "proto-scientific" systems of correspondence;[8] any reference to supernatural forces is usually the result of romantic translations or poor understanding and will not be found in the Taoist-inspired classics of acupuncture such as the Huang Di Nei Jing. The system's development has, over its history, been analysed both skeptically and extensively, and the practice and development of it has waxed and waned over the centuries and cultures through which it has travelled[9] - yet the system has still survived thus far. It is true that the focus from the beginning has been on pragmatism, not necessarily understanding of the mechanisms of the actions - and that this has hindered its modern acceptance in the West. This, despite that there were times such as the early 18th century when "acupuncture and moxa were a matter of course in polite European society"[10]The term "TCM" describes the modern practice of Chinese medicine as a result of sweeping reforms that took place after 1950 in the People's Republic of China. The term "Classical Chinese medicine" (CCM) often refers to medical practices that rely on theories and methods dating from before the fall of the Qing Dynasty (1911). Advocates of CCM portray it as less influenced by Western and political agendas than TCM.[edit] Timeline Macerated medicinal liquor with wolfberry, iguana, and ginseng, for sale at a traditional medicine market in Xi' history of TCM can be summarized by a list of important doctors and , Huángdì nèijīng (黄帝内经/黄帝内经) (Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon) - Sùwèn (素问/素问) and Língshū (灵枢/灵枢). The earliest classic of TCM passed on to the present. Warring States Period (5th century BC to 221 BC): Silk manuscripts recording channels and collaterals, Zubi shiyi mai jiu jing (足臂十一脉灸经/足臂十一脉灸经) (Moxibustion Classic of the Eleven Channels of Legs and Arms), and Yinyang shiyi mai jiu jing (阴阳十一脉灸经/阴阳十一脉灸经) (Moxibustion Classic on the Eleven Yin and Yang Channels). The latter was part of a cache of texts found in Mawangdui in the 1970s. Han Dynasty (206 BC–AD 220) to Three Kingdoms Period (220 - 280 AD): Zhenjiu zhenzhong jing (针灸枕中经/针灸枕中经) (Classic of Moxibustion and Acupuncture Preserved in a Pillow) by Huà Tuó (华佗/华佗). Shanghan zabing lun (伤寒杂病论/伤寒杂病论), which has since been split into two texts: the Shānghán lùn (伤寒论/伤寒论) ("Treatise on Cold Damage [Disorders]" - focusing on febrile conditions attributed to "Cold") and the Jingui yaolue (金匮要略) ("Essentials of the Golden Cabinet" - focusing on "miscellaneous illnesses") by Zhāng Zhòngjǐng (张仲景/张仲景). Jìn Dynasty (265-420): Zhēnjiǔ jiǎyǐ jīng (针灸甲乙经/针灸甲乙经) (Systematic Classic of Acupuncture and Moxibustion) by Huángfǔ Mì (皇甫谧/皇甫谧). Tang Dynasty (618–907) Beiji qianjin yaofang (备急千金要方/备急千金要方) (Emergency Formulas Worth a Thousand in Gold) and Qianjin yifang (千金翼方) (Supplement to the Formulas Worth a Thousand in Gold) by Sūn Sīmiǎo (孙思邈/孙思邈). Waitai miyao (外台秘要/外台秘要) (Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Library) by Wang Tao (王焘/王焘). Song Dynasty (960 – 1279): Tóngrén shūxué zhēnjiǔ tújīng (铜人腧穴针灸图经/铜人腧穴针灸图经) (Illustrated Manual of the Practice of Acupuncture and Moxibustion at (the Transmission) (and other) Acu-points, for use with the Bronze Figure) by Wáng Wéiyī (王惟一). Yuan Dynasty (1271 to 1368): Shísì jīng fāhuī (十四经发挥/十四经发挥) (Exposition of the Fourteen Channels) by Huá Shòu (滑寿/滑寿). Ming Dynasty (1368 to 1644): golden age of acupuncture and moxibustion. Many famous doctors and books. To name only a few: Zhēnjiǔ dàquan (针灸大全/针灸大全) (A Complete Collection of Acupuncture and Moxibustion) by Xu Feng (徐凤/徐凤). Zhēnjiǔ jùyīng fāhuī (针灸聚英发挥/针灸聚英发挥) (An Exemplary Collection of Acupuncture and Moxibustion and their Essentials) by Gāo Wǔ (高武). Zhēnjiǔ dàchéng (针灸大成/针灸大成) (Compendium of Acupuncture and Moxibustion) by Yáng Jìzhōu (杨继洲/杨继洲), completed in 1601. Běncǎo gāngmù (本草冈目/本草纲目) (Compendium of Materia Medica) by Lǐ Shízhēn (李时珍/李时珍), the most complete and comprehensive pre-modern herbal book (completed in 1578). Wenyi lun (温疫论/温疫论), by Wu Youxing 吴有性 (1642). Qing Dynasty (1644-1912): Yizong jinjian (医宗金鉴/医宗金鉴) (Golden Mirror of the Medical Tradition) compiled by Wu Quan (吴谦/吴谦) under imperial commission. Zhenjiu fengyuan (针灸逢源/针灸逢源) (The Source of Acupuncture and Moxibustion) by Li Xuechuan (李学川/李学川). Wenre lun (温热论/温热论), by Ye Tianshi (叶天士/业天士). Wenbing tiaobian (温病条辨/温病条辨) (Systematized Identification of Warm-factor disorders) compiled by Wu Jutong (吴鞠通) in 1798.[11] [edit] Theory This article or section cites its sources but does not provide page can improve this article or section by introducing citations that are more precise. Dried plants and animals parts are used in traditional Chinese medicines. In the image are dried lingzhi, snake, turtle plastron, Lou han fruit, and species of foundation principles of Chinese medicine are not necessarily uniform, and are based on several schools of thought. Received TCM can be shown to be influenced by Taoism, Buddhism, and Neo-Confucianism.[12]Since 1200 BC, Chinese academics of various schools have focused on the observable natural laws of the universe and their implications for the practical characterisation of humanity's place in the universe. In the I Ching and other Chinese literary and philosophical classics, Chinese writers described general principles and their applications to health and , a Western medical doctor, placed Chinese medical theory in context as:Chinese medicine, like many other Chinese sciences, defines data on the basis of the inductive and synthetic mode of cognition. Inductivity corresponds to a logical link between two effective positions existing at the same time in different places in space. (Conversely, causality is the logical link between two effective positions given at different times at the same place in space.) In other words, effects based on positions that are separate in space yet simultaneous in time are mutually inductive and thus are called inductive effects. In Western science prior to the development of electrodynamics and nuclear physics (which are founded essentially on inductivity), the inductive nexus was limited to subordinate uses in protosciences such as astrology. Now Western man, as a consequence of two thousand years of intellectual tradition, persists in the habit of making causal connections first and inductive links, if at all, only as an afterthought. This habit must still be considered the biggest obstacle to an adequate appreciation of Chinese science in general and Chinese medicine in particular. Given such different cognitive bases, many of the apparent similarities between traditional Chinese and European science which attract the attention of positivists turn out to be spurious.[13][edit] Basic theory and model of the body An old Chinese medical chart on acupuncture meridians Interactions of Five Chinese Elements - Cycles of Balance and Cycles of ImbalanceMain article: TCM model of the body The following text needs to be harmonized with text in TCM model of the Chinese medicine is largely based on the philosophical concept that the human body is a small universe with a set of complete and sophisticated interconnected systems, and that those systems usually work in balance to maintain the healthy function of the human body. The balance of yin and yang is considered with respect to qi ("breath", "life force", or "spiritual energy"), blood, jing ("kidney essence", including "semen"), other bodily fluids, the five elements, emotions, and the soul or spirit (shen). TCM has a unique model of the body, notably concerned with the meridian system. Unlike the Western anatomical model which divides the physical body into parts, the Chinese model is more concerned with function. Thus, the TCM spleen is not a specific piece of flesh, but an aspect of function related to transformation and transportation within the body, and of the mental functions of thinking and are significant regional and philosophical differences between practitioners and schools which in turn can lead to differences in practice and invoked to describe the human body in TCM include:Channels, also known as "meridians" Five elements Qi Three jiaos also known as the Triple Burner, the Triple Warmer or the Triple Energiser Yin and Yang Zang Fu theory The Yin/Yang and five element theories may be applied to a variety of systems other than the human body, whereas Zang Fu theory, meridian theory and three-jiao (Triple warmer) theories are more are also separate models that apply to specific pathological influences, such as the Four stages theory of the progression of warm diseases, the Six levels theory of the penetration of cold diseases, and the Eight principles system of disease classification.[edit] Modern TCM theoryThis section needs more detail, citations, better links, or all three. Also : How widespread is the belief that TCM and fractals are somehow interconnected? Someone must have come up with the idea, who was it?Third philosophy: Fractal (similar) view[14] Qi is the `information - energy - material' mix unity flow [15], Qi sets, qi element, sub-Qi sets. Mathematics physics Yin or Yang TCM fractal sets[16] Fractal Yin Yang sets: Df=1. Fractal Five elements sets: Df=, Yin Yang Five elements sets Df=.[17] Fractal Zang Xiang theory:[18] the heart series, the liver series, the spleen series, the lung series, the kidney system. Fractal Channel ( Meridian (Chinese medicine) Jingluo),CHANNELS AND MESH-NETWORK,NO VESSEL. TCM channel is fractal, complex, pluralistic, rough, not smooth, non-tube dissection structure.[19] [edit] Diagnostics

Chinese Dumpling Chinese dumplings or Jiaozi,with meat and vegetable fillings,is a traditional Chinese Food,which is essential during holidays in Northern are Masters in the Art of Making history of jiaozi dates back to ancient times,some 500-600 years the Spring Festival marks the start of a new year,people choose to eat jiaozi to connote their wishes for good fortune in the new has been perfecting the art of dumpling making since the Sung is no set rule as to what makes dumping can be anything from vegetables,meat to the fillings,the wrapping skill needs to be exquisite to make jiaozi look and varietyChinese dumplings may be round or crescent-shaped,boiled or filling may be sweet or savory; vegetarian or filled with meat and course,all this variety can be China is a country with a vast territory,there are great difference in various regions in ways of making jiaozi or even serving example,dumplings wrappers are made with a rolling stick in most areas of Beijing and Hebei Provinces,whereas in some parts of Shanxi Province and inner Mongolia Autonomous Region,wrappers are hand- to make Chinese dumplings?To make Chinese dumplings,first of all,chop the meat into pieces and mash them,then add salt,sesame oil,soy sauce,ginger,scallions,Chinese cabbage and MSG if you thoroughly the ingredients; add two spoonful of water if a big bowl,add water to flour and knead by hand to form soft dough,then cover it with towel and put it aside for about an scatter some dry flour on the board,knead and roll it into a sausage---like dough about 5 centimeters in diameter,then chop it into small each piece with your hand and get a hold the pancake with your palm and put the filling in the center and wrap into half-moon shaped and seal the next step is the dumpling into boiling water,when it is well cooked,it is ready to be eating,you need to prepare some small dishes to contain the mixture of soy sauce,vinegar,and sesame oil or pepper oil [to your own of servingWays of serving Chinese dumplings also vary from place to dumplings are boiled in clear water and served dry with vinegar,soy sauce,garlic or pepper oil if one likes them some parts of the Northeast China,however,dumplings are boiled in broth together with vermicelli made from bean starch,and served dumplings and cultureNew Year's Food Chinese dumpling is one of the most important foods in Chinese New the shape of Chinese dumplings is similar to ancient Chinese gold or silver ingots,they symbolize members of a family get together to make dumplings during the New Year's may hide some coins in one of the person who fined the coin will likely have a good fortune in the New dumpling is also popular in other Chinese holidays or festivals,so it is part of the Chinese culture or Link Making dumplings is really a team family members will join the ChineseTo starte to make dumplings when they was a kid in family,they know how to make good at making dumplings,particularly making skins,which is the hardest part of making Off Friends Chinese dumpling is often the food for sending off friends or family members guess this is another tradition希望对你有用，满意请采纳。