有关四大发明论文的参考文献

The four great inventionsPaper: paper is an important chemical processes, the invention of paper is Chinese in the spread of human culture and development make a valuable contribution, is China's chemical history of a major paper also before, oracle bones, bamboo slips and silk silk is used for writing, the ancient recorded material. But due to the rapid development of the economy, culture, bones and bamboo can not meet the demand of development, thus contributing to the improvement of writing tools. At that time people began using small silk made of paper, as the ancient Chinese when paper by hemp thread and silk, and preparation method of rough paper, so the quality is not so good. But the hemp thread and silk has its own role, to use them as a raw material for paper-making, would be greatly restricted, and difficult to get rapid development, to meet the cultural life of the requirement to the new situation request, Cai Lun of Eastern Han Dynasty for the emergence of papermaking to bring new breakthrough in the Eastern Han Dynasty," views on" 2 records:" Cai Lun, talented, dedicated to cautious, every vacation, closed to the guest, aeration body field. Code for the sale, made with bark and spacious cloth, net to make paper. Xing Yuan first year playing, the emperor can, since is not used, the salty called Cai Hou paper". From above, Cai Lun is using bark, rags, net of papermaking. Although before Cai Lun also has a paper, but raw material itself is very limited, and Cai Lun on the new raw materials, to solve this problem. Because the rag, broken fishnet had already finished their task, a waste and used as a raw material for papermaking industry, which plays an important : is the working people in ancient China through long-term practice and research before the invention of. About the year before and after 600 years of Sui Dynasty, people from the engraved seal inspired, in the history of mankind's earliest invention of woodblock printing is in a certain thickness of the smooth wood, paste copy neat manuscript, thin and almost transparent paper front and wood paste, the word became the body, strokes clear. Engraving workers graver in the suites have writing section is cut away, is a convex embossed font, and font recessed beneath the different steles. When printing, on a raised fonts with ink, and then the paper covering on top of it, gently wipe away the paper back, writing remain on the paper. By the Song Dynasty, woodblock printing career development to the heyday. Woodblock printing on the spread of culture play an important role, but also has obvious disadvantages. The first version, time-consuming material costs, second, a large number of books stored inconveniently, third, is not easy to correct Northern Song Dynasty civilian inventor Bi Sheng invented movable-type printing, woodblock printing these drawbacks improvement. Bi Sheng's Dynasty of an ordinary civilian intellectuals, the person who. He summed up the block printing of rich experience in practice, after repeated tests, the emperor Renzong of evolution years (AD 10411048 ) made the moveable, execute typesetting printing, completed the printing history of a major revolution, about 200 years later, this technology spread to other countries, the development of world civilization process to promote the role : is one of the four great inventions of china. Gunpowder, as the name suggests is the ( fire medicine ). Its origins and alchemy are closely related, Bachelor in ancient alchemy alchemy inadvertently is a mixture of saltpeter, sulfur, carbon, and the top two in the Han Dynasty book into Chinese Materia Medica ( first classics of Shennong materia medica by ) have been listed as important medicinal herbs. Gunpowder itself is also come under the drug class, the Ming Dynasty Li Shizhen ( compendium of Materia Medica ) said, gunpowder can cure sore ringworm, insecticidal, provide moisture and plague. The invention of gunpowder is a long-term alchemy pharmaceutical practice results, has been one thousand years of Tang Dynasty, gunpowder has been used for military. The Song Dynasty, the war continuously, promote the accelerated development of gunpowder weapons. The government of the Northern Song Dynasty established a powder mill, has made gunpowder arrow, artillery and other combustion properties mainly weapons and ( bang cannon ), ( lightning bombs ) and other explosive strong arms. The Southern Song Dynasty were created in 1259 to giant bamboo tube, built-in gunpowder ( sudden guns ). To the Yuan Dynasty and the emergence of bronze ( copper Fire Commission, known as the general). These are to gunpowder explosion as the driving force of arms, in the war revealed a hitherto unknown 12, thirteenth Century, the gunpowder first introduced in Arabia state, and then spread to Greece and Europe and around the world. On the civilization and progress of human society, the economy and the development of science and culture, played a role in promoting. The law until the middle of the fourteenth Century, only then has the application of gunpowder and firearms : the spring and Autumn period, Chinese working people in the mining, smelting, gradually recognized magnet. To the Warring States period, some people use magnets made apparatus to determine the direction, then called" compass", it is in a along the plate placed on a water scoop like magnet, water scoop handle end of South point. To the late Northern Song Dynasty ( Eleventh Century AD), the Chinese people have created artificial magnet, then created a" guide to the fish", the magnet." Fish" on the water surface, thus indicating the direction. Later, after repeated research and improvement, and the magnetic steel sheet into a small magnetic needle, and makes its tip into the magnetic north pole, end become the south magnetic pole, which became a compass. The Northern Song Dynasty, people create a suitable nautical compass, the maritime industry to a new era. During this period, China 's shipbuilding technology in the world the most advanced. At the beginning of the fourteenth Century, the compass was introduced into Europe from china.四大发明 造纸术:造纸是一项重要的化学工艺，纸的发明是中国在人类文化的传播和发展上所做出的一项十分宝贵的贡献，是中国化学史上的一项重大的成就。 在纸还未发明之前，甲骨、竹简和绢帛是古代用来供书写、记载的材料。但由于西汉的经济、文化迅速发展，甲骨和竹简不能满足发展的需求，从而促使了书写工具的改进。当时人们已开始应用小块的丝绵制成的纸，由于古汉时的纸张是由麻缕和丝绵，加上制法粗糙，所以纸张的质量不太好。而麻缕和丝绵都有其本身的作用，如要把它们用作造纸的原料，就必然会受到很大的限制，而难以得到迅速的发展，来满足文化生活上对纸张的要求。 在新的客观形势要求下，东汉蔡伦的出现为造纸术带来新突破，在《东汉观记》卷二上记载：“蔡伦，有才学，尽忠重慎，每次休沐，闭门以绝宾客，曝体田野。典作尚方，造意用树皮及敝布、鱼网作纸。元兴元年奏上，帝善其能，自是莫不用，天下咸称蔡侯纸”。从以上看来，蔡伦是用树皮、破布、鱼网造纸的。虽然在蔡伦之前也有纸的存在，但是原料本身就有很大的局限，而蔡伦对新原料的发现，解决了这个问题。因为破布、破鱼网早已结束了它们本身的任务，成了废物而又用作做原料，对造纸工业起了极大的推动作用。 印刷术:是我国古代劳动人民经过长期实践和研究才发明的。 大约在公元600年前后的隋朝，人们从刻印章中得到启发，在人类历史上最早发明了雕版印刷术。 雕版印刷是在一定厚度的平滑的木板上，粘贴上抄写工整的书稿，薄而近乎透明的稿纸正面和木板相贴，字就成了反体，笔划清晰可辨。雕刻工人用刻刀把版面没有字迹的部分削去，就成了字体凸出的阳文，和字体凹入的碑石阴文截然不同。印刷的时候，在凸起的字体上涂上墨汁，然后把纸覆在它的上面，轻轻拂拭纸背，字迹就留在纸上了。到了宋朝，雕版印刷事业发展到全盛时期。雕版印刷对文化的传播起了重大作用，但是也存在明显缺点。第一，刻版费时费工费料，第二，大批书版存放不便，第三，有错字不容易更正。 北宋平民发明家毕升发明了活字印刷术，改进雕版印刷这些缺点。毕升是北宋中期的一个普通平民知识分子，当时人称布衣。他总结了历代雕版印刷的丰富的实践经验，经过反复试验，在宋仁宗庆历年间（公元1041－1048）制成了胶泥活字，实行排版印刷，完成了印刷史上一项重大的革命，大约200年后，这一技术传到其他国家，对世界文明的发展进程起到推动作用。 火药:是中国四大发明之一。火药,顾名思义就是(着火的药)。它的起源与炼丹术有着密切的关系,是古代炼丹士在炼丹时无意中配制出来。 它是硫黄,硝石,炭的混合物,而前两项在汉代成书的中国第一部药物学典籍(神农本草经)里都被列为重要的药材。就是火药本身也被归入药类,明代李时珍的(本草纲目)中说,火药能治疮癣,杀虫,辟湿气和瘟疫。火药的发明是人们长期炼丹制药实践结果,至今已有一千多年历史。 唐朝末年,火药已被用于军事。到了宋代,战争接连不断,促进火药武器的加速发展。北宋政府建立了火药作坊,先后制造了火药箭,火炮等以燃烧性能为主的武器和(霹雳炮),(震天雷)等爆炸性较强的武器。南宋在1259年造出了以巨竹为筒,内装火药的(突火枪)。到了元代又出现铜铸火统,称为(铜将军)。这些都是以火药的爆炸为推动力的武器,在战争中显示了前所未有威力。 在12、13世纪,火药首先传入阿拉伯国家,然后传到希腊和欧洲乃至世界各地。对人类社会的文明进步,对经济和科学文化的发展,起了推动作用。美法各国直到十四世纪中叶,才有应用火药和火器的记载。 指南针:春秋时期，中国劳动人民就在采矿、冶炼中，逐渐认识了磁石。到战国时期，就有人用磁石做成器具来判定方向，当时叫“司南”，它是在一个无沿的方盘上放置一只水勺似的磁石，水勺的柄端向南指。到北宋后期（公元11世纪），中国人民创造了人工磁铁，此后又创制了“指南鱼”，把用磁钢片制成的“鱼”放在水面上，以此指示方向。后来经过反复研究改进，又把磁钢片改成细小的磁钢针，并使它的尖端成磁北极，末端成为磁南极，这就成了指南针。北宋时期，人们创造了适用于航海的指南针，把航海事业推向了新的时代。这一时期，中国的造船技术在世界上也最为先进。到了14世纪初，指南针才由中国传到欧洲。