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1989~1991年

1989年1月六级作文题及范文

Directions: The Problem of Human Population
范文:
It has been estimated that a thousand years ago there were less than 400 million people on earth. However, in the recent thousand years human population has increased nearly 20 times. Nowadays the world population has reached more than 7000 million. The population explosion has caused many problems. Generally, they come down to four major ones.
First, a lot of people can't get employment, which is a universal problem in the world. Second, in developing countries there are not enough shelters for too many people and so people are not properly housed and even are exposed to the elements. Third, in underdeveloped countries a lot of people suffer from hunger because of food shortage, which in turn causes many other problems, malnutrition, disease, etc. Fourth, there are not enough schools for so many people and so a lot of people are illiterate.
Therefore, to eliminate these problems, human beings should take effective measures to control population.

1990年1月六级作文题及范文

Directions:
问题:城市交通拥护解决方案:(solution)
1. 建造(lay down)更多道路
优点:降低街道拥护程度加速车流(flow of traffic)
缺点:占地过多
2.开辟(open up)更多公共汽车线路
优点:减少自行车与小汽车
缺点:对部分人可能造成不方便
结论:两者结合
How to Solve the Problem of Heavy Traffic

范文:
The urban traffic is getting increasingly crowded nowadays in China. The roads are pakced with cars, bicylces and pedestrians and traffic jams, bus delays and traffic accidents are a common scene.
Then how to solve this problem? Some suggest to lay down more roads to make the traffic less crowded and speed up the flow of traffic. Others believe that we should open up more public bus routes, so that more people will take the public buses instead of travelling by cars and bicycles.
Though above two views sound reasonable, they have their own drawbacks. The fomer may take up much land which could be used for farms and houses. The latter may cause inconvenience for those who are used to travelling by car or bicycles. I think the best answer to the traffic problem is a combination of the two. More roads can be built to hold more traffic and meanwhile more public bus routes can be opened up to those who prefer to use the public transportation.

1990年6月六级作文题及范文

Directions: Four suggested solutions to this problem are listed below. You are supposed to write in favour of one suggestion(ONE only)and against another(ONE only). You should give your reasons in both cases.
四种可能解决住房问题的方案
1.多造高层建筑
2.向地下发展
3.建造卫星城市
4. 疏散城市人口
How to Solve the Housing Problem in Big Cities

范文:
The shortage of housing is one of the most serious problems facing many big citeis in China. Though the government has spent a large sum of money on housing, the investment has produced little financial return and a housing shortage still persists. Two generations sharing one room and newly-married couples finding it difficult to have a house of their own are still common cases. Housing shortage is a problem that requires and urgent solution.

People's attitudes towards the solution to the housing problem are different. Some suggest to build more high-rise apartments; others believe to develop underground housing areas. I am in favour of the former opinion. For one thing, it is cheaper to build above gound than below. For another, living underground for a long time will do harm to people's health. Above all, people are unwilling to live unerground with artificial lighting and they prefer to live above ground to enjoy the sunshine.
Although there may be some other ways to solve the housing shortage problem, I believe to build more high-rise apartments is one of the promising solutions to the housing problem.

1991年1月六级作文题及范文

Directions:
1.人类面临的问题(如能源、疾病、污染、人口等)
2.悲观的看法(人类将无法生存)
3.人类的智慧出路
Man Is to Survive

范文:
Nowadays humanity is faced with a lot of troublesome problems: energy crisis, cancer, pollution, population explosion, etc. They are threatening the survival of humanity. Therefore, some people are pessimistic about the future of humanity.
They are pessimistic because they think that limited energy on earth will be exhausted soon; incurable diseases are threatening more people's lives; pollution is worsening the environment; population explosion will make food shortage even more serious.
Actually they needn't worry too much about these problems. Scientists will have developed new energy resources by the time oil and coal are used up. Besides, scientists are making a thorough study of genes and they will manage to cure cancer by adjusting the arrangement of genes. They are also making efforts to control pollution and population. Furthermore, all the governments in the world are concerned about these problems and they have taken measures to solve these problems.
Therefore, we have every reason to be sure that human beings will conquer nature but they will never be conquered.

1991年6月六级作文题及范文

Directions: For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition based on the graph below.

Outline:
1.Rise and fall of the rate of car accident as indicated by the graph;
2.Possible reason (s) for the decline of car accidents in the city;
3.Your predictions of what will happen this year.
Food Year 1989 1990
Grain 49% 47% 46.5% 45% 45%
Milk 10% 11% 11% 12% 13%
Meet 17% 20% 22.5% 23% 21%
Fruit and vegetables 24% 22% 20% 20% 21%
Total 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
Your composition should be no less than 120 words and you should quote as few figures as possible.

范文:
The graph shows the changing rate of car accidents in Walton city in 1990. The first two months of 1990 showed an increasing trend. The rate rose to 32 in March but fell to 26 in June. From June on the rate was rising again and reached the peak point 39 in August. After August the rate began to decline, and eventually dropped to the lowest point 16 at the end of the year.

The highest rate in August was due to unfavorable weather conditions. Humidity and high temperature make drivers impatient, which easily leads to car accidents. The high rate in the first half of 1990 was also caused by the bad weather condition. In Walton City the excessive rain comes at early spring. The rain made road slippery, which often resulted in car accidents.
This year the pattern is expected to change. The city government has raised fund to improve the road condition. Two new roads will be finished at the beginning of this year and are expected to open to traffic soon. Furthermore, the new road regulation provides that in summer every car must be air-conditioned. With all these precautions, I'm sure that the rate of car accidents will be much lower this year.

1992~1994年 1992年1月六级作文题及范文 Directions: 1.电影观众越来越少 2.电视观众越来越多,因为... 3.然而,还是有人喜欢看电影,因为... Film Is Giving Way to TV 范文: Nowadays there are fewer and fewer cinema-goers and the cinema is slack. However, there are more and more TV viewers. There are many reasons for this social phenomenon, but in general, they come down to three major ones. First, film tickets are too expensive, while it doesn't cost much to watch TV at home. Besides, it is time-consuming and inconvenient to go to the cinema. Nevertheless, it is very convenient and comfortable to watch TV at home. You needn't go out but just need to turn on the television. Most important of all, if you don't like the film you'll have to sit through it; but if you don't like one programme on TV, you can shift to another. However, some people still go to the cinema. They usually go to the cinema for the purpose of social contact. Young people go dating there. Other people go to the cinema as an activity. For example, schools often organize children to go to the cinema. Sometimes employees also go to the cinema with the film tickets presented by their institutions. 1992年6月六级作文题及范文 Directions: 1.新世纪科技发展的前景如何? 2.新的科学技术会给社会带来什么好处? 3.新的科学技术会给社会带来什么问题? 4. 你怎样对待新世纪的挑战? Looking Forward to the Twenty-first Century 范文: The new century is approaching. It can be expected that there will be a breakthrough in life sceience and space science in the 21st century. First, scientists will conquer incurable diseases through the transformation of genes. With the same technology they can breed new species of animals and even human life in the laboratory. Most important of all, they can decelerate aging and prolong life. Besides, permanent stations will be set up in the moon or other planets or stars so that scientists can make a thorough study of the moon and other planets or star. Most probably life will be found in other stars in universe or the planets or stars suitable for the human existence will be discovered. However, the scientific development will also bring about some social problems. How should we regard from an ethical perspective the one who is bred through the gene technology in the laboratory. How can the police identify the criminal from a group of people with the same DNA? It is quite natural that we will meet problems in the scientific and social development. Therefore, we should be prepared to meet new challenges. 1993年1月六级作文题及范文 Directions: 1.近年来中国城市中的摩托车 2.摩托车的优点和缺点 3.你对我国城市中摩托车发展前景的看法 范文: Nowadays, motorcycles are popular around us. They have be come an important means of transport in Chinese cities. Compared with the bike and the car, the motorcycle has its own advantages. First, it is quite flexible. When there is a traffic jam, it can go through the cars that are held up in the street. Besides, it doesn't consume much petrol. Most important of all, it can carry another person at the back. But every coin has two sides. The negative aspects are also apparent. To begin with, it's very complicated to get qualified for riding a motorcycle. You'll have to go through a series of procedures to get a riding license. Furthermore, the maintenance is expensive. Worst of all, it costs a big sum of money to pay for the license plate, especially in Shanghai. In conclusion, it has both favorable and unfavorable aspects. However, if the authorities concerned simplify the procedures and reduce the cost of the license plate, the motorcycle will be accepted by more people. 1993年6月六级作文题及范文 Directions: For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition on topic My View on Opportunity. You must base your composition on the following instructions (given in Chinese): 有些人认为机会是极少的, 另一些人则认为人人都有某种机会。你的看法如何?写出你的观点,说明你的理由并举例。在你的文章结尾处不要忘记写出你的结论。 范文: Different people have different views on opportunity. It is held that there are few opportunities. But it is also held that there re opportunities everywhere. Those who hold the first opinion think that there are too many people and so there is always an intense competition for limited opportunities. In contrast, those who hold the second view think that if one is not prepared, he can hardly have any opportunities; however, if one is prepared, he can have a lot of opportunities. As to me, I agtee with the latter opinion. Admittedly, there is really an intense competition for limited opportunities, but this is not to say that one can't create opportunities himself. In most cases opportunities are created by people themselves. For example, many people lost their jobs in recent years. Some people wait for opportunities in vain. However, others create opportunities themselves and get self-employed. Eventually they become employers themselves. Therefore, to some extent, one can take his destiny into his own hands. 1994年1月六级作文题及范文 Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic We Need to Broaden Our Knowledge. You should write no less than 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese) below: 1. 科学技术是社会发展所不可缺少的 2. 社会科学和自然科学相互渗透 3. 现代大学生需要广博的知识 We Need to Broaden Our Knowledge 范文: Knowledge is power, especially scientific and technological knowledge. Science and technology are the motive power of the social development. Without them human society could never have developed from primitive society to modern society. Therefore, to conquer and transform nature, we must master scientific knowledge. However, social knowledge is also essential. Without it we can not understand society and don't know the law of the social development. As a result we are unable to govern society. Therefore, besides scientific knowledge we need to master social science, philosophy, politics, history, aesthetics, etc, so that we can know society from all perspectives and form a correct world outlook. To meet new challenges in he 21st century, we university students should lose no time to acquire as much knowledge as possible so that we will become qualified successors of the socialist cause. 1994年6月六级作文题及范文 Directions: 1.我理想的职业是什么? 2.为什么我选择这个职业? 3.我怎样为我理想的职业作准备? The Career I Pursue 范文: In China young people usually want to be engineers, doctors, businessmen, etc. and few want to be teachers. Unlike most young people I decide to be a teacher. There are many reasons for my personal preference but generally they come down to three major ones. First, I was born in a teacher's family and so I was greatly influenced by my father. Second, I find that education is important because it is the basis of science and technology and if a country's education is backward, its science and technology will never be advanced. Third, teachers are needed in our country, especially in the countryside. However, it is not easy to be a qualified teacher. A qualified teacher must have a good command of his specialty. Besides, he should be responsible and devoted to the educational cause. Most important of all, he should be patriotic. To be a qualified teacher in the future I must lose no time to acquire as much knowledge as possible. 'Furthermore I must know the history of our country so as to cultivate patriotism. 1995~1998年 1995年1月六级作文题及范文 Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic My view on the Negative Effects of Some Advertisements. You should write at least 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese) below: 1. 现在有些不良的商业广告 2. 这些广告的副作用和危害性 3. 我对这些广告的态度 范文: Nowadays ther are a lot of false advertisements in society. They have caused many harms to society. Generally, their harms can be listed as follows. First, they exaggerate the functions of the goods they advertise and mislead consumers. Second , some advertisements contain obscene contents and bring about spiritual pollution. Third, they seriously damage the credit of businesses because the shops which sell those goods will be distrusted and even considered the conspirators of those advertisers by consumers. Personally, I am usually vigilant against any advertisements and so I have never been taken in. However, some people are credulous and are easily taken in. Therefore, in my opinion, effective measures must be taken to ban false advertisements and protect consumers' interests. First, all the advertisements must be strictly censored by the authorities concerned before they are published. Besides, severe unishment must be inflicted on those who publish illegal advertisements. In conclusion, false advertisements must be eliminated in our society. 1995年6月六级作文题及范文 Directions: For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition on the topic:Should Firecraekers Be Banned'? You should write no less: than 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese ) below: 1.有人认为放鞭炮是好事,为什么? 2.有人认为放鞭炮是坏事,为什么? 3.我的看法。 (Suggested key words: firecrackers(鞭炮) set off/let off(放鞭炮 ) Remember to write your composition neatly. 范文: Different people have different views on firecrackers. Some people think that firecrackers should be banned because they endanger people's lives and social security. However, others hold that firecrackers houldn't be banned because they will drive evil spirits and bring luck. As to me, I am in favor of the first idea. The reasons are as follows. First, addmittedly, letting off firecrackers will create an auspicious atmosphere, but it will not really bring luck to let off firecrackers. Besides, it is dangerous to let off firecrackers. It was reported that letting off firecrackers causes a lot of accidents, fire, injury, and even death every year. However,it is our traditional custom to celebrate an important occasion by letting off firecrackers.How can we let off firecrackers whithoug causing accidents? The possible solution is that the substitute for the firecracker should be invented so that we can celebrate an important occasion whitout causing accidents. 1996年1月六级作文题及范文 Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic Why I Take the College English Test Band 6. you should write at least 120 words and your composition should include the following two points (given in Chinese): 1. 有人认为没有必要参加大学英语六级考试(简称CET-6)。 2. 我参加CET-6考试的理由。 范文: Some students think it unnecessary to take CET-6. They hold this views because CET-6 is not compulsory and they can get a degree so long as they pass CET-4. However, I think it necessary and beneficial to take CET-6. The reasons are obvious. First, if I decide to take CET-6, natually, to pass CET-6 becomes a goal I set myself and with a goal to strive towards I will continue to study English hard. Of course my English will not be neglected in the third and fourth years. Besides, if I pass CET-6, I can get a certificate which, to some extent, shows my experience and qualification so that I can compete with other in job-hunting. Most important of all, a good knowledge of English will help my work and scientific research in the future. All in all, taking CET-6 does good both to my studies and to my personal advancement. 1996年6月六级作文题及范文 Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic Health Gains in Developing Countries. You must base your composition on the following instructions (given in Chinese): 1. 以下图为依据描述发展中国家的期望寿命(life expectancy)和婴儿死亡率(infant mortality)的变化情况。 2. 说明引起变化的各种原因。 范文: In the developing countries great changes took place in life expectancy and infant mortality in the period from 1960 to 1990. In 1960 life expectancy was very low, while infant mortality ws very high. However, in 1990 life expectancy increased, whereas infant mortality declined. There are many reasons for the changes, but in general, they come down to three major ones. First, their living conditions were improved. In the old days people in the developing countries suffered hunger and were exposed to the elem

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licabbr.1. =linear integrated circuit 线性集成电路ESCabbr.1. =escape character (data processing) 换码字符,扩展字符(资料处理)endnote开放分类: 软件、工具、文献、论文EndNote使用简介文献管理和论文写作的利器!虽然讲的是7.0的使用,对8.0的变化也不大EndNote简 介Endnote 由Thomson Corporation下属的Thomson ResearchSoft 开发。 Thomson ResearchSoft是以学术信息市场化和开发学术软件为宗旨的子公司。Thomson Corporation总部位于美国康涅狄格州的Stamford。Endnote的功能一、在线搜索文献:直接从网络搜索相关文献并导入到Endnote的文献库内二、建立文献库和图片库:收藏,管理和搜索个人文献和图片、表格三、定制文稿:直接在Word中格式化引文和图形,利用文稿模板直接书写合乎杂志社要求的文章功能一 在线搜索文献Endnote利用Z39.50信息获取协议可以方便进入全世界绝大多数的文献数据库,并将连接和搜索这些数据库的信息用“Connection Files”的形式储存起来直接提供给使用者。 Connection Files的设置可以自己创建或修改搜索过程:1.进入Endnote7.0,从“Tools”菜单下点击“Connect”2.出现“Choose A Connection File”对话框,选定数据库,点击“Connect”3.按照布尔逻辑设定搜索词,点击“Search”4.出现搜索结果,存入指定的文献库提示:1.通过点击“Find” 进行查找设置可以提高对某一类型数据库的查找效率2.很多数据库需要输入帐号和密码3.“ Save Search”可以保存搜索设置;“Load Search”可以导入已保存的搜索设置;“Add Field” 和“Delete Field”分别添加和删除设置栏功能二 管理库内文献一、导出文献EndNote库内的文献可以以4种格式导出:Rich Text Format (RTF), HTML, XML, 和 plain text documents(TXT)。从而创建独立的文献集或者创建可以导入到其他数据库的参考文献。导出的文献样式由当前样式决定,当前样式可以从“Edit”菜单下的“Output Styles”或者工具栏上的样式下拉框选定。导出步骤:1.选定要导出的文献库2.按照自己的要求排列文献的顺序3.选择合适的文献样式4.从 “File”菜单下点选“Export”.6.出现导出对话框,选择要保存的文件格式.rtf; .html; .XML; .txt 和文件名7. 保存注意: 如果文献库内有图像的话,图像将不会随之导出。只能另外粘贴。二、导入文献EndNote可以将不同来源的文献导入到已存在的库内或新建的库中:A. Online searching: 即通过EndNote直接进入网上数据库查找和获得文献B. Direct Export:很多网络数据库如MEDLINE、Pubmed、CSA等都支持将自己选择的文献以EndNote可识别的格式下载C. CD-ROM:将CD内的文献转换为文本格式以后通过滤镜导入滤镜:滤镜用于导入网络数据库、CD-ROM和任何含有能够说明文件内信息的标签的文本文档。实际上“Connection files”里也含有滤镜。滤镜的功能是在导入时使EndNote能够解读常规的数据资料,相当于一个解读器。它将文献资料内的信息投射到EndNote 相应的信息域。由于每个特定的数据库都是由供应商以各自的数据组织方式提供的,因此即使供应商相同,每个数据库都需要一个特定的滤镜,不能混用。EndNote自带的滤镜已经经过设定,可以导入相应数据库的资料。使用者也可以编辑滤镜或新建以适应新的数据库或者自用。文本文献的导入过程:1. 创建EndNote可以导入的文本文件:文件必须是“标注格式(Tagged Format)”的.txt文档,即不同的信息必须以特定的标注(如Tab键、//等记号)分隔归类,每一个标注及其后面的信息都另起一行。自己创建相当麻烦。多数数据库支持将其数据资料转换为Tagged格式。如何转换见滤镜选择对话框下面的“Comments”内容或者“帮助”里的“ImportFormat”。如Pubmed的文献转换为:PMID- 15492285OWN - NLMSTAT- In-ProcessDA - 20041019IS - 0008-5472VI - 64IP - 20DP - 2004 Oct 15TI - CC chemokine ligand 25 enhances resistance to apoptosis in CD4+ T cellsfrom patients with T-cell lineage acute and chronic lymphocytic leukemiaby means of livin activation.PG - 7579-87AB - We investigated CD4 and CD8 double-positive thymocytes, CD4(+) T cellsfrom typical patients with T-cell lineage acute lymphocytic leukemia(T-ALL) and T cell lineage chronic lymphocytic leukemia (T-CLL), and MOLT4T cells in terms of CC chemokine ligand 25 (CCL25) functions of inductionof resistance to tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha)-mediatedapoptosis.AD - Department of Immunology, and Laboratory of Allergy and ClinicalImmunology, Institute of Allergy and Immune-related Diseases and Centerfor Medical Research, Wuhan University School of Medicine, Wuhan, Republicof China.FAU - Qiuping, ZhangAU - Qiuping ZFAU - Jei, XiongAU - Jei XFAU - Youxin, JinAU - Youxin JLA - engPT - Journal ArticlePL - United StatesTA - Cancer ResJID - 2984705RSB - IMEDAT- 2004/10/20 09:00MHDA- 2004/10/20 09:00AID - 64/20/7579 [pii]AID - 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-04-0641 [doi]PST - ppublishSO - Cancer Res 2004 Oct 15;64(20):7579-87.2. 点选“File”菜单里的“Import”,出现Import对话框1) 点击“Choose File”选择要导入的文献数据2) 选择“Import Options”下拉菜单里各项:EndNote Library: 将EndNote的一个文献库导入到另一个文献库。映像不会随之转移,导入完成过后需要将该映像文件拷贝到新文献库内。EndNote Import: 将从网络数据库下载或从EndNote导出并转换成EndNote格式的文本导入到新的EndNote文献库。Refer/BibIX: 将从Refer 或 BibIX程序导出的文本导入到EndNoteProCite: 将从ProCite 导出的文本导入到EndNoteTab Delimited: 用于导入信息域已经被跳格键(Tab)分隔的文本Reference Manager (RIS): 可导入从Reference Manager, Reference Update, Reference Web Poster 和其他任何RIS 格式资源导出的文档。用EndNote 也可以打开Reference Manager 的文献库。ISI-CE: 导入来自于ISI数据资源的文本文档Multi-filter (Special): 用于导入含有不同来源文献的文档EndNote generated XML: 用于从EndNote导出的XML 格式的文件Other Filters: 进入“Choose A Filter”对话框看到EndNote自带的大量滤镜,对应于不同的网络数据库。记住每个数据库都需要一个特定的滤镜,即使供应商相同也不可混用。Use Connection File:可以将一个connection file作为滤镜。当用EndNote的Connect命令搜索某一数据库时会生成Connect.log文件,将此文件导入成文献库数据。该Connect.log应该包含all references from your previous session。3) 选择“Duplicates”下拉菜单:Import All:导入所有文献,包括与目的库内有重复的文献Discard Duplicates: 导入文献时剔除与目的库内有重复的文献Import into Duplicates Library: 导入文献到目的库,但将所有重复文献放入一个名为“File-Dupl.enl”的库中,“File”是目的库的库名。使用者可以在稍后浏览这些文献或者合并两个库。4) 选择“Text Translation”菜单:通常选择“No Translation”,只有机读目录(美国国会图书馆发行的磁带版图书目录,即MARC格式)的文档选择“ANSEL”5) 点击“Import”导入文献。只有最新导入的文献会显示在当前库内,要查看新旧所有文献,单击滑鼠右键的后点击“Show All References”。三、编辑库内文献大多数EndNote的文献管理指令只针对当前显示在库内的文献,对隐藏的文献无效。首先选取库内感兴趣的文献,EndNote支持使用Ctrl和Shift键选取多个文献。接下来的操作与Word相似。1 显示和隐藏文献:在“References”菜单或滑鼠右键菜单内点击“Show Selected References”、“Hide selected References”或“Show All References”,可以仅显示所选文献或隐藏所选文献,或者显示所有文献。2 在库内查找文献:在“References”菜单或滑鼠右键菜单内点击“Search References”,出现检索栏,选择检索项,输入检索词,点击“Search”获得结果。3 添加删除文献:copy、cut、paste、输入新文献4 编辑修改文献5 对文献排序6 改变文献显示的样式7 在库内文献中加入图片、表格和其他映像文件8 查找重复文献四、合并文献库1 将一个文献库内的文献导入到另一个库:按照文献导入步骤,只是要在“Import Options”下拉菜单中选择“EndNote Library”。在导入之前最好将源库和目的库都做好备份,以防数据的改变带来不利后果。映像不会随文献导入到新库中,必须将保存在源库的.DATA文件夹内的映像文件拷贝到目的库的.DATA文件夹里。注意:如果从当前文献库内导入文献到目的库,被导入的文献将只会是当前库内显示出来的文献,隐藏的文献不会被导入。2 拖拽:在源库中选定要转移的文献,直接用滑鼠左键托拽文献到目的库。同样,操作前应备份。3 拷贝和粘贴:在源库内用“Copy”命令拷贝文献,在目的库中用“Paste”粘贴。同样,操作前应备份。注意:备份是又必要的,尤其是当你在用EndNote书写文章时,插入引文的记录号直接与库内文献关联。一旦库内文献改变了,文献记录号也会改变,很有可能影响到文章里插入文献的正确性。功能三 利用EndNote7.0写文章EndNote在安装时可以自动整合到Word 97、2000、XP中,使用者可以简单轻松地将EndNote7.0的库内文献加入到Word文档里,进而格式化引文形成合乎杂志要求的引文样式。另外EndNote7.0提供各种文稿的模板,写文章实现了流水线模块化。注意:最好先安装Word后再安装EndNote7.0,反之有可能不整合。解决办法是重装EndNote7.0。文稿模板:EndNote 提供了大量合乎各种杂志要求的稿件模板,收集在“Templates folder”里,写文章时选择合适的模板可大大简化写作过程。文稿模板经过了格式化,对页边距、标题、行距、首页、摘要、图形位置、字型字号等都做了规范。用模板书写文章的流程:1. 打开模板:从EndNote里打开:点击“Tools”下拉菜单里的“Manuscript Templates”后选择模板; 或者从Word里打开:“新建” “通用模板” “EndNote” 选择模板。2.模板在Word里打开后,出现“Template Wizard”3. 依次填写“Template Wizard”所要求的信息,Template Wizard会将其转入到文章合适的位置。4.填写完后点击“Finish”,进入Word里的模板。5.按照版式填写。“Cite While You Write”是EndNote7.0里与Word整合的元件,可以直接从Word的“工具”菜单里找到和使用。“Cite While You Write”里的选项:1.Find Citation(s): 用于打开“EndNote Find Citations”对话框搜索和插入库内文献,其搜索方式是“任何字段”式的。2. Go To EndNote: 打开EndNote3. Format Bibliography: 对引文样式进行格式化。格式化就是将当前临时的引文转化成一定格式的引文,同时在文章结尾处自动生成引文列表。在缺省设置时即时格式化(“Instant Formatting”)是启动的,随时对插入的引文进行格式转换。引文的输出样式设置可以自己修改。4. Insert Selected Citations: 插入在已经打开的EndNote 文献库内所选定的文献。一次最多插入50篇。5. Edit Citations: 打开“Edit Citation”对话框编辑引文。例如省略作者和年代、添加前缀后缀等。6. Insert Note: 添加注释(自己定义的引文)7. Edit Library Reference(s): 在Word 里选定引文所在位置后利用本命令进入EndNote自动打开相应文献和编辑。8. Unformat Citation(s): 对一个引文或所有引文去格式化,即恢复到系统缺省的临时引文格式(只含有作者的last name、年代和文献记录号)。9. Remove Field Codes: 去掉文章里所有的EndNote域代码后生成一个新的文件,此时已经格式化的引文和引文列表都以文本的形式存在(之前是域)。这利于投稿。10. Export Traveling Library: 将文章里引用的文献导入到EndNote建立成一个新库。11. Find Figure(s): 在EndNote库内寻找带有映像(即图表或附件)的文献,将该映像插入到文章里光标所在位置,形成文内图表。12. Generate Figure List: 对文内映像重新计次序。当前输出样式决定了映像是紧跟在文中段落后还是位于文章结尾。13. Cite While You Write Preferences: “Cite While You Write”参数设置。一、怎样加入引文1.在Word里将光标移到想加入文献的位置2.找到和插入想加入的文献:(1) 方法一:从Word的工具栏里进入“EndNote 7.0”子菜单选择“Find Citation(s)”,出现“EndNote Find Citations”对话框。输入要查找的文献字段,点击“Search”。出现检索结果后点选要引用的文献,点击“Insert”,引文即插入到Word文件里。(2) 方法二:从Word的工具栏里进入“EndNote 7.0”子菜单选择“Go To EndNote”,进入EndNote7.0,打开文献库,点选要加入的文献,回到Word,进入“EndNote 7.0”子菜单选择“Insert Selected Citation(s)”。也可以把选定的文献直接拖到Word里或者在EndNote里Copy,在Word里粘贴。注意:在缺省设置状态下“Instant Formatting”即“立即格式化”是启动的,每次加入的引文会立刻转换成相应格式,同时在文章结尾自动加上文献列表。 如果“立即格式化”未启动,引文则保持临时引用格式即{第一作者,年代#记录号},文章结尾也没有文献列表产生。3.所有引文加入完成以后,从Word的工具栏里进入“EndNote 7.0”子菜单选择“FormatBibliography”,进入“Format Bibliography”对话框。点击“Browse”选择合适的杂志类型,点击“确定”,EndNote会扫描整个文章将引文转换成该杂志要求的格式。4.编辑引文(基本不用,没事不要瞎改):对引文的编辑只能在引文格式化之后进行,否则系统会提示找不到可编辑的引文。在引文格式化以后,从Word的工具栏里进入“EndNote 7.0”子菜单选择“Edit Citation(s)”,出现“Edit Citation”对话框,进行编辑。编辑后要重新格式化才会保存所作更改。Exclude Author: 省略所选引文的作者Exclude Year: 省略所选引文的年代Prefix: 给引文加上前缀Suffix: 给引文加上后缀Pages: 给引文加上页码,在文章内以“@页码”的形式出现在临时格式里上下箭头: 改变引文的顺序5.在已经格式化的文章里可以继续加入引文,加入以后重新格式化,EndNote会对引文重新排序和整合。如果该处原有多个旧引文,EndNote只能在旧有引文之前或之后加入新引文,而不能在旧引文中间加入新引文。注意:对已经格式化的引文,Word里会保持其域代码,此时即使在EndNote的文献库里删除了相应文献,也不会影响到文章。但未格式化的引文只是占位符,不含域代码,如果文献在库里删除了相应文献,EndNote就会找不到文献信息。二、怎样加入注释一些杂志(如Science) 要求在文章结尾加上注释,加入的注释会和引文一样被编号,进而按照出现的顺序出现在文献列表里,也就是成为文献列表的一部分。注意: 只有在以“编号样式(numbered style)”格式化过的文章里加入注释才是有意义的,否则注释只能以全文本形式出现在文章里。加入步骤:1. 在Word里将光标移到想加注释的位置2.从Word的工具栏里进入“EndNote 7.0”子菜单选择“Insert Note”,出现“EndNoteInsert Note”对话框3. 写入注释,字数不限4. 点击OK。注释以临时引文的格式出现在相应位置5. 再次格式化文章,你会看到在文章加入注释的位置出现数字标号,在文献列表里会出现注释的内容注释同样可以用“Edit Citation”编辑,方法同前。注意:加入的注释只能是文本,而且注释里不能出现临时引文格式所用的定界符。三、怎样修改引文格式和参考文献的输出样式一般不作修改,如果确有必要修改:从Word的工具栏里进入“EndNote 7.0”子菜单选择“Format Bibliography”,进入“Format Bibliography”对话框。对话框包括以下内容:1. Format Bibliography”键下的内容:1) Format document: 显示当前要进行修改的文章2) With output: 选择合适的格式,点击 “Browse”可呈现更多种类格式3) Temporary citation delimiters: 临时引文格式的定界符,缺省为大括号2. “Layout tab” 键下的内容:1) Font and size: 参考文献的字型字号2) Bibliography title: 参考文献列表的标题,一般是“REFERENCES”或“参考文献”3) Text Format: 参考文献列表标题的字型字号4) Start with bibliography number:第一个文献的编号5) First line indent and Hanging indent: 首行缩进和悬挂缩进,同Word6) Line spacing and Space after: 文献内行距和文献间行距Set the line spacing for within a reference and the space after for spacing between references.7) “Instant Formatting”键:启动和停止“立即格式化(Instant Formatting)”,使EndNote在插入引文的同时能/不能对引文进行格式化8) “Libraries Used”键: 显示文章引文的来源库对以上各项进行修改后点击“确定”,EndNote会依据上述参数重新格式化文章,修改引文格式和参考文献的输出样式。注意:自己也可以在文献列表里手动修改文献,但重新格式化的时候这些手动修改不会被保存下来。自己也可以在文献列表后手动填写新文献,但新文献必须位于文献列表域之外,否则也不会被保存。四、怎样加入和格式化图表存储在EndNote库里的映像文件都可以插入到文稿里。除了表格以外,文献里的映像文件在Word里都会被当作图形。表格类型文献里的映像在插入Word时还是被当作表格处理,与图片的编号各自独立。文稿中插入的图片以“(Figure X)”的形式存在,表格以“(Table X)”的形式出现。依据所选择的输出样式,图表可以在插入段落之后出现,或者在文稿结尾的图表列表里出现。加入步骤:1. 进入EndNote打开含有映像文件的库2. 在Word里移动光标至插入位置3. 从Word的工具栏里进入“EndNote 7.0”子菜单选择“Find Figure(s)”,出现“EndNote Find Figures”对话框4. 写入搜索词,搜索词之间可以用“and”连接。5. 点击“Search”出现搜索结果,选中要加入的文献,点击“Insert”。文章内出现“(Figure X)”,EndNote自动对其进行编号。注意:1. “Instant Format”的设置只对引文有效,对映像文件无效,每次加入的映像文件都会自动格式化。但如果加入之后你又对映像文件作了修改(如剪切、粘贴、删除、移动),你必须从Word的工具栏里进入“EndNote 7.0”子菜单选择“Generate Figure List”重新对映像进行格式化。2.映像出现的位置由你所选择的输出样式(output style也就是杂志的样式)决定,如果没有事先设置输出样式,系统缺省设置为出现在所加入的段落之后。要选择输出样式,和引文一样,从Word的工具栏里进入“EndNote 7.0”子菜单选择“Format Bibliography”,进入“Format Bibliography”对话框选择“With output”。3.可以手动调整映像的位置(如剪切、粘贴、删除、移动),但“Generate Figure List”重新格式化时会将映像放回到原先的位置,要使系统保留手动调整结果,进入“Cite While You Write Preferences”的“Figures and Tables”键,选择下面一个选项也就是“记住映像的当前位置”。这样即使重新格式化,映像仍在你想要的位置。4.手动调节映像引用处的位置:选择引用点,包括括号,如(Figure 1),拷贝、剪切或拖拽到新位置。5.和处理引文一样,对映像改动之后都要重新“Generate Figure List”。五、去掉域代码生成纯文本文件现在很多杂志都要求作者提供电子文稿。格式化后的文稿含有大量域代码,有可能与杂志社的软件不兼容,因此提交前需要去掉文稿里的域代码。方法是从Word的工具栏里进入“EndNote 7.0”子菜单选择点击“Remove Field Codes”,出现一个提示框告诉你“该操作将创建一个新的去掉了所有域代码的Word文档,原文件仍然打开且无改动”,点击“确定”将新文件存到指定地点。新文件内容和原文件完全相同,只是无域代码,因此不能再对引文进行格式化。附:域代码的由来和作用:当对文稿进行格式化时,EndNote会自动生成一个随行库(Traveling Library)以隐藏方式植入到文稿,库里含有当前文稿里所有的文献信息(除了注释、摘要、映像和图解外),域代码可以认为就是这个随行库的触角,存在于格式化后的引文周围和内部,含有该引文的信息。因此即使换一台没有EndNote文献库的电脑上,格式化后的文稿也能靠随行库和域代码继续对引文进行修改,而一旦去掉了域代码也就去掉了文献信息。要查看域代码,选中引文所在处(区域呈灰色)点击滑鼠右键选定“切换域代码”,切忌胡乱修改。六、“RTF Document Scan”的使用“RTF Document Scan”可以扫描Word文稿里的参考文献和生成文献列表,好处是在格式化引文之前可以检查引文插入是否有差错。过程:1.按照常规在Word或者模板里写文章和插入引文,但“Instant Format”功能一定要关掉,以使引文都以临时格式(如{Morehouse, 1993 #125})出现。2.将文件另存为.RTF格式。3.关掉Word。4.进入EndNote,从“Tools”菜单进入“RTF Document Scan”子菜单,在弹出的对话框内选定.RTF格式的文件后打开5.出现Citations in“X.RTF”窗口,引用的文献会按照在文章里出现的先后来显示,如果一个文献被引用了多次,也会在该窗口里显示多次。6.如果引文加入正确,窗口里所有的文献之前的“Matches”栏都应该显示为“1”,意思是EndNote 在库内找到了有且只有一个文献与该引文相合,这时就可以格式化文稿了;如果数字不为1,说明有问题,要检查文稿。7.选择输出样式进行格式化,会生成一个新文件,文件名里会自动带上所选的样式名称,很直观。

132 评论

漫游的Alice

学长曾经也是s.在前面那位讲的ABC夫下中心报读;

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麻球小子

DNA微阵列 (DNA Microarrays)技术/基因芯片(Genechip)技术是一种在上世纪80年代开始研制,90年代成熟和推广并得到广泛应用的生物学检测技术。目前英文中大多使用DNA微阵列(DNA Microarrays)来表示基因芯片,而Genechip已经被美国昂飞(Affymetrix)公司申请商用专利。DNA微阵列(基因芯片)技术的出现是生物学相关领域的一个里程碑事件。它使得生物学、医学等领域研究快速发展,与之相关的科学论文数以万记(未统计具体数字,表示很多的意思)。而且,这项产生于上个世纪的基因芯片技术目前仍然是生物科学领域最具应用价值的技术之一(80年代-克隆,90年代-PCR,21世纪-芯片)。DNA微阵列(基因芯片)技术和传统的Southern杂交、Northern杂交等技术一样,均基于核酸之间的互补结合特性开发,但是传统技术只能针对单个基因来分析,而微阵列技术则开启了高通量模式。如果是第一次接触这个概念,你可以先简单的把微阵列理解成是一种和计算机芯片(如中央处理器,Central Processing Unit,CPU)在体积上类似(都很小),并主要用于定性或定量测定生命体内物质的检测技术。区别在于微阵列(如DNA Microarrays)并不能用来进行加减乘除等数学运算,而CPU可以)。所涉及的名词和技术如果你有知识体系构建的习惯,可以将这次所要学习的内容大致与以下名词做一些关联:生物学生物学过程基因及其产物标记、杂交以及显微成像技术定性和定量检测技术计算机自动处理技术......相关知识所依赖的场所:生物体内(in vivo)生物体外(in vitro)计算机内(in silico)学习它的重要性如果你参加过与生物信息学相关的培训或者导读课程,就会知道,DNA微阵列(基因芯片)技术常常是作为这些课程的必修内容之一。通过学习DNA微阵列(基因芯片)技术的相关概念、基本原理、数据分析方法及其注意事项,将是你入门生物信息学的最好的一次机会。了解芯片技术有助于大家进一步学习生物信息学涉及到的其他新型技术,比如全外显子测序和靶向测序、全基因组测序、全转录组测序、单细胞测序等。在学习相关的数据分析过程中,你将会积累一部分编程经验(如R和Bash),这对于以后熟练掌握编程技术也非常有意义。而编程技术的掌握与否则是衡量一个人生物信息学入门的最基本的指标之一。掌握它之后,你可以利用公共芯片数据进行数据挖掘,用于验证你de想法或者发现新的知识。你现在可以搜索一下GEO(Gene Expression Omnibus)中和微阵列(基因芯片)相关的数据,试着回答一下上面的数据都有哪些类型?两个“简单”问题生物和非生物体的主要区别在哪里?生物体内的遗传信息传递依赖哪些物质?它的流动顺序是怎样的?我建议在这里你可以稍微发动一下你的想象力,尽量基于你已有的知识或者凭空猜一猜看。如果你已经有自己的答案或者实在想不出来则可以继续往下(这样会加深你对这两个问题的印象)。生物和非生物体的主要区别在哪里?生物的九大基本特征:生物体具有严整的结构(细胞是生物体结构和功能的基本单位)。生物体能进行新陈代谢。生物体能生长。生物体具有应激性。生物体能生殖和发育。生物体具有遗传和变异的特性。生物体能在一定程度上适应环境并影响环境。生物体能跟外界进行物质交换。生物体可以呼吸。自主阅读,并回答:生物、细胞、遗传物质以及代谢产物之间的关系?生物主要分为几大类?人属于哪一类?真核生物和原核生物的区别有哪些?它们的遗传物质的种类是否相同?病毒属不属于生物?它有没有遗传物质?如果它不属于生物,原因是什么?微生物能不能呼吸?它的呼吸方式有哪些?生物体内的遗传信息传递依赖哪些物质?它的流动顺序是怎样的?这里要引入一个非常重要的概念:中心法则:生物体内的遗传信息沿着DNA-RNA-蛋白质轴流动,DNA->DNA:DNA复制,DNA->RNA:转录,RNA->RNA:RNA复制,RNA->DNA:逆转录,RNA->蛋白质:翻译。掌握这个生物体内的信息流动过程对于你理解基因芯片技术有重要帮助。补充一点,以后你会经常碰到“扩增(amplification)”这个概念,其实它主要对应于中心法则中的DNA复制过程,如基因芯片技术大多有互补脱氧核糖核酸(complementary DNA,cDNA)的扩增步骤。图一 真核生物的中心法则示意图(DNA,RNA和蛋白质)。什么是微阵列?微阵列的概念和方法(抗体微阵列,也称为抗体基质)最早由Tse Wen Chang于在1983年发表在《J Immunol Methods》的科学论文进行了论述。微阵列主要是基于固体基质(通常是载玻片或硅薄膜)上的二维阵列,使得人们可以高通量地定性或定量的测定生物分子(如DNA、RNA、蛋白质等)。图二 抗体微阵列示意图微阵列的分类微阵列主要类型包括:Antibody microarraysDNA microarrays:如cDNA微阵列, 寡核苷酸微阵列, BAC微阵列和SNP微阵列MMChips, 用于检测microRNAProtein microarraysPeptide microarrays, 用于分析蛋白质-蛋白质相互作用Tissue microarraysCellular microarrays,又称转染微阵列Chemical compound microarraysGlycan arrays (carbohydrate arrays)Phenotype microarraysReverse phase protein lysate microarrays, microarrays of lysates or serumInterferometric reflectance imaging sensor (IRIS)这里可以看到,微阵列技术除了使用DNA、RNA、蛋白质,还可以使用其他诸如比DNA等大一点的组织、细胞,或者更小一点的肽、碳水化合物等物质。你需要记住的是DNA和RNA是基因芯片技术使用最多的两种物质,后面我们将对DNA微阵列(基因芯片)进行部分展开。如果想了解其他芯片技术,你可以快速地比较一下其他微阵列技术,如蛋白质微阵列和肽微阵列。DNA微阵列(基因芯片)DNA微阵列(基因芯片)是属于微阵列技术应用中的一种,主要是用于定性或定量测量存在于生物体内的核酸。其用于定性和定量的探针由数kb(cDNA芯片)或者几十个(寡核苷酸)特定类型的核苷酸所构成。该技术之所以可行的一个重要原理就是碱基之间的互补配对作用,以及互补的核苷酸单链间的杂交作用。DNA微阵列(基因芯片)的发展历史上个世纪80年代中期提出基因芯片的原型开始,因其依赖的相关技术还不成熟,基因芯片技术还一直处于实验室阶段,并未进行大规模商用。1991年,美国的Affymetrix公司开始进一步对基因芯片技术进行研发。次年(1992年)Affymetrix公司制成了首张商业化寡核苷酸芯片,并使用前面提到的Genechip作为其基因芯片的商业名称。1995年斯坦福大学的 Ron Davis and Pat Brown 实验室首次在《Science》杂志上发表基因表达谱芯片的论文之后,DNA微阵列即基因芯片技术开始迎来它的黄金发展期。1996年,Affymetrix公司运用激光共聚焦及分子生物学技术研制出首块cDNA芯片,从此拉开了基因芯片技术研究与开发的帷幕,这一年也被称为基因芯片的元年。Affymetrix(昂飞),Agilent(安捷伦),Illumina等商业公司的成立对于基因芯片技术的进一步和大范围推广应用发挥了重要作用。1998年,美国科学促进会将基因芯片技术列为年度自然科学领域十大进展之一,同年美国政府正式启动生物芯片计划。2001年人类第一个基因组发布之后,随着二代测序技术时代的到来,在一部分生物检测领域(如基因表达谱分析)逐渐替代了基因芯片成为首选技术(如全转录组测序)。2016年占据基因表达谱芯片市场绝大多数份额的美国Affymetrix(昂飞)公司被另一家美国公司赛默飞世尔科技(Thermo Fisher Scientific)以13亿美元的价格收购。图三 Affymetrix(昂飞)基因芯片实物图左:Human Genome U133 Plus 2.0 右:Mouse Genome 430 2.0应用场景及其技术路线来源:Wiki扩展阅读:Schena, M.; Shalon, D.; Davis, R. W.; Brown, P. O. (1995). "Quantitative Monitoring of Gene Expression Patterns with a Complementary DNA Microarray". Science. 270 (5235): 467–70.cDNA基因芯片和寡核苷酸基因芯片图四 基因芯片流程概览(一)图五 基因芯片流程概览(二)图六 基因芯片标记后核酸杂交示意图图七 Affymetrix Human Genome U133A基因芯片示意图Affymetrix 原位光刻技术美国著名的Affymetrix公司率先开发了寡聚核苷酸原位光刻技术,并申请相关专利。它是生产高密度寡核苷酸基因芯片的核心关键技术。该技术的最大优点在于用很少的步骤可合成大量的DNA阵列(主要步骤:固基羟基化-光敏基团保护-避光膜透光聚合-光照活化-碱基结合-反应合成-不断循环)。Affymetrix的原位合成技术可制作的点阵密度高达10^6~10^10/cm^2。图八 Affymetrix原位光刻技术示意图Affymetrix PM-MM探针设计采用PM-MM配对设计探针的目的是为了提高芯片技术检测结果的灵敏度和特异度。Affymetrix在探讨了各种各样的影响因素后,设计出了一种独特的PM-MM探针方案。芯片上的每一个基因或EST都是由一个或几个探针组(probe set)组成,每组探针组又由11-20对25mer的探针对(probe pair)组成,每探针对包括两个探针池(probe cell),其中一个是完全匹配(Perfect-Match,PM)的,另外一个是序列中间有一个碱基错配的(Mis-match,MM)。通过多个短核苷酸片段可以有效区分同源片段,避免了同源片段的结合导致的假阳性和错误。一般使用25mer长度的寡核苷酸。因为在该长度下,信号强度和分辨率达到平衡,有一个碱基发生错配,杂交复合物就会变得很不稳定。如果长度达到60mer,就无法区分序列上十分接近的序列,即有错配碱基仍然会进行结合。图九 Affymetrix PM-MM探针设计示意图illumina BeadArray光纤微珠Illumina的芯片产品采用了另外的一种技术:BeadArray光纤微珠。图十 Illumina基因芯片的微珠结构:每个微珠上会连接100万个左右相同的探针图十一 Illumina基因芯片Beadarry示意图双通道和单通道从双通道(cDNA芯片)到单通道(寡核苷酸芯片)是基因芯片技术发展进程中重要进步之一。双通道主要用于cDNA芯片,即用两种荧光的比值反应基因表达水平(红色通道和绿色通道),比如处理前用一种荧光标记,处理后用另一种荧光标记,二者竞争性杂交。单通道是指只用一种标记物标记,点的荧光强度可以反映基因表达水平,如寡核苷酸芯片Affymetrix。标准化: 在芯片实验中,各个芯片的绝对光密度值是不一样的,在比较各个芯片结果之前必需将其归一化(normalization,也称作标准化)。在同一块芯片上杂交的、由不同荧光分子标记的两个样品间的数据即双通道数据,也需归一化。标准化的概念现在只要记住一点:在数据分析时需要利用某些算法对不同芯片或者同一芯片不同通道的数据进行统一,从而使其之间可以进行比较。双通道到单通道数据的的标准化适用的标准化算法不完全一致。相关标准化算法资料可以在提供的后续阅读材料中获取。依赖的其他技术一项技术的产生,其往往依靠的是大量前期人们所积累的其他技术基础之上,这和一项科研成果大多需要基于前人的工作一样。基因芯片技术的产生也得益于其他相关技术的发明和发展。PCR技术上世纪80年代,在分子生物学领域有一个家喻户晓的技术被发明——-聚合酶链式反应(Polymerase Chain Reaction,PCR)。它可以以指数级别扩增特定DNA片段的单拷贝或几个拷贝,以产生数千至数百万拷贝的特定DNA序列。而在基因芯片进行样品检测时,常常需要将目标核酸进行大量扩增以使得其可以达到被检测的水平。以后你遇到的很多其他生物学检测技术(如高通量测序技术)也会常常用到这个技术。PCR技术由Kary Mullis在1983年发明。10年之后的1993年,Kary Mullis和Michael Smith一起荣获当年诺贝尔化学奖,后者主要是奖励其发明的寡聚核苷酸定点诱变技术。标记技术除了PCR技术很重要之外,另一个也是基因芯片检测试验必不可少的:标记技术。目前在基因芯片产品中常用到的两种标记物:荧光分子直接标记生物素标记通过标记物标记之后的核酸才有可能被我们的基因芯片仪器所检测到,后面的数据分析中定量分析,如确定基因表达水平的高低,也主要依靠的是标记物所产生的信号强弱来计算。高精度机械臂基因芯片和计算机芯片类似,都是在很小的容积内进行很多高精度操作。特别是cDNA芯片,它需要先合成大量的长片段核酸,然后通过注射入芯片上相应的位置。显微镜和光传感技术单单只有标记好的核酸是产生不了数据的,需要一个扫描装置来将阵列上的斑点(核酸标记产生光的强弱变化)将光信号转变为电信号。而能够完成扫描工作的装置就是利用显微镜和光传感技术的各类显微镜。激光扫描荧光显微镜激光扫描共焦显微镜CCD相机的荧光显微镜这里强调一点:对于上世纪基因芯片技术广泛应用的最重要的显微镜类型是激光扫描共焦显微镜。激光扫描共焦显微镜与激光扫描荧光显微镜相比,尽管二者结构类似,但是前者可以在荧光标记分子与DNA芯片杂交的同时进行杂交信号的探测,而无须清洗掉未杂交分子,从而简化了操作步骤大大提高了工作效率。其他扫描仪:用于检测和量化微阵列载玻片上斑点荧光强度的仪器,通过激光选择性激发荧光团并用滤光片(光学) 光电倍增管系统测量荧光。通道:扫描仪中记录的荧光输出,用于单个荧光团,甚至可以是紫外线。斑点或特征:阵列固相载体上的一个小区域,包含微量的特定DNA样本。病例/对照:特别适用于双色阵列系统的实验设计范例,其中将选择作为对照的病症(例如健康组织或状态)与改变的病症(例如患病组织或状态)进行比较。数据托管网站:目前最大的基因芯片数据存储仓库为美国国立卫生研究院(USA National Institutes of health,NIH)资助建立的Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO)数据库。用到的文件格式:.EXP:包含实验的基本信息,.DAT:芯片的扫描图像,.CEL: 特征的初始量化(每个探针的荧光强度),.CDF:探针在芯片中的定位信息,探针到探针组的映射,.CHP:包含基因表达水平(用affy软件评估)探针注释文件:一个数据文件存储了基因探针(如1303_at)与人类可读的基因名字(如SH3BP2,SH3 Domain Binding Protein 2)间的对应关系批次效应(batch effect):因试验或者数据分析引入的非生物学效应,即相同样品进行多次检验,结果出现差异,当差异程度较大时会影响最终的生物学结论(如这篇论文)。数据下载工具:R包(GEOquery)数据原始格式:.CEL后缀文件(为探针检测数据,非基因表达值)。数据分析工具:R包(affy,CLL,simpleaffy,affyPLM,gcrma,affycoretools,limma, annotate, hgu133plus2.db, GOstats, GeneAnswers, gplots, pheatmap,clusterProfiler)其他阅读资料通过以上内容,我相信你对基因芯片技术已经有了一些初步的了解。如果你仍然感兴趣,或者希望进一步深入学习,你可能需要集中阅读大量相关资料(即主题阅读)。下面列出的一些链接,中文资料只简单在一些平台搜索了关键字,英文资料则进行了汇总。开始阅读其它资料之前,你可以点击这里进行虚拟实验,体验你的第一次虚拟基因芯片实验操作和数据分析(双通道芯片)。

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一佛爷一

http://cet.hjenglish.com/detail.aspx?ContentId=729(汇总:17年来大学英语四六级考试作文题目及范文)

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